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By John J. Mulligan

The Bureau of Mines investigated reports of mineral deposits within 10 miles of the route of the proposed pipeline from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez. No producing lode deposits or lode prospects of possible national economic significance were found. Measured placer deposits in the route are or slight value except possibly some deeply buried gold placer deposits in the Fairbanks and Livengood Quadrangles. The pipeline corridor crosses five belts of minerals having potential economic value: (1) The north slope of the Brooks Range (oil, gas, oil shale, coal, phosphate); (2) the south slope 01 the Brooks Range (copper, gold); (3) the Livengood area (gold); (4) the Fairbanks area lead-silver, antimony); and (5) the Wrangell Mountains-Denali copper belt (copper-gold). The Jarvis Creek coalfield, an eastern extension of the Nenana coalfield, is on the north side of this belt. Scattered along the corridor across the Chugach Mountain and in the vicinity of Valdez are a wide variety of metallic deposits that make up the eastern margin of the Chugach gold belt but do not seem to constitute a well-defined zone.

Jan 1, 1974

By E. G. King

Many of the rare-earth oxides are now commercially available in pure form and they have a variety of potential technical uses. Thermodynamic data for these oxides, however, are rather sparse. It is one of the functions of the Bureau of Mines to fill the need for this type of information. This report gives the results of low-temperature heat-capacity and high-temperature heat-content measurements by the Bureau of Mines of lanthanum sesquioxide. The entropy at 298.15° K. was evaluated and heat-content and entropy increments above 298.15° K. were obtained to 1,800° K. The results were combined with the known heat of formation at 298.15° K. to derive heats and free energies of formation at higher temperatures. Sufficient information is now available to permit reliable thermodynamic calculations involving lanthanum sesquioxide within the temperature range 298° to 2,000° K.

Jan 1, 1961

By Ronald S. Conti

Historically, underground mine rescue teams have received training only in the course of actual emergencies, or in simulated mine environments, usually on the surface, with placards to identify objects and hazards. Also, while U.S. Federal Regulations require all underground miners to walk escapeways and conduct fire drills every 90 days, this does not fully prepare them for the conditions that may be encountered in real escape situations, such as smoke filled entries. This paper describes technology and realistic training simulations that have been identified for the general workforce and mine emergency responders. Of all the technology evaluated by underground personnel, laser lights and lifelines were most beneficial in leading personnel to safety and out of the mine in smoke-filled passageways. These technological advancements can improve the state of readiness for rescue personnel and increase the chances of survival for personnel escaping from underground emergencies.

By E. F. Ferrell

Gold was recovered from scrap electronic 60-40 (tin-lead) solders by drossing with aluminum or zinc at elevated temperatures. The gold, together with other metallic impurities, collected in the dross phase which could then be separated from the molten solder by skimming or filtering. Drossing upgraded the gold concentration by a factor of 10. Further upgrading was achieved by a combination of steps including an oxidation roast and either a combined cyanidation-amalgamation treatment or an aqua regia leach. The gold was then recovered in highly concentrated form from the aqua regia or cyanide solutions by cementation and from the amalgam by volatilization or dissolution of the mercury. The solder was purified by reaction with NaOH to remove dissolved aluminum or with SnCl2 to remove dissolved zinc.

Jan 1, 1976

By Daryl R. Tweeton

The Bureau of Mines conducted experiments to measure the influence of environment on the friction and wear of a steel-quartz system at several speeds and loads. In each test a quartz block was pressed against a rotating ring of low-carbon steel. Environments used were moist air, dry air, dry nitrogen, water, aqueous oleylarnmonium acetate (ClsH35NH3+-OCOCH3), and aqueous aluminum chloride (A1C13). The sliding speeds were 2.2, 13, and 33, cm/sec, and the loads were 6.8 and 13.6 kg. The coefficient of friction, the wear, and the roughness of the surfaces were measured, and the wear debris was examined. The coefficient of friction was significantly lower in moist air at 2.2 cm/sec than for any other combination of environment and speed employed, and was generally an inverse function of the oxidizing ability of the environment. The coefficient of friction increased somewhat with increasing load. The wear of the steel rings was greatest in dry air at all speeds and loads. The wear of the quartz blocks at 180 rpm was greatest in dry air, but at 12 rpm it was greatest in nitrogen. Friction and wear in aqueous oleylarnmonium acetate and in aqueous aluminum chloride were similar to effect in water alone.

Jan 1, 1976

By Kenneth H. Johnston

Information on oil and water production, volume of water injected, core analyses, and well completion data was collected on 28 Red Fork sand water-flood projects for comparison and evaluation of results. An average water injection efficiency of 35 percent, an average water-injected to oil-produced ratio of 16.8:1, and an average loss outside the flood pattern of approximately 45 percent of the injected fluid resulted in an oil recovery to January 1, 1969, of only 5.6 percent of the pore volume, or 9.1 percent of the initial stock-tank oil in place. The principal causes of poor oil recovery from these projects are the losses of large quantities of injection water from the flood patterns through oriented, natural fracture systems or zones of high permeability and excessive channeling of injection fluids from input wells to oil wells. For more efficient operation and a higher percentage of oil recovery from the Red Fork sand and other low-permeability-sand waterflood projects, directional orientation of both induced-and natural-fracture systems should be determined during early development. The success of a low-permeability-sand waterflood project depends to a large extent upon the orientation of the injection wells with the fracture system.

Jan 1, 1970

By C. M. Frost

Crude shale oil produced during in situ retorting by the Bureau of Mines at Rock Springs, Wyo., was refined by three schemes. In the first, the crude oil was fractionated to raw naphtha and 400° F+ residuum. The residuum was hydrogenated over cobalt molybdate catalyst at 815° F and 1,100 psig. The blended raw and 160°-400° F hydrogenated naphthas were hydrodenitrified and then catalytically reformed. The 400° F+ hydrogenated oil was catalytically cracked. In the second scheme, the crude was hydrogenated over nickel-tungsten catalyst at 800° F and 1,500 psig. The hydrogenated fractions were processed by methods used in the first scheme. The third scheme resembled the second but, prior to hydrogenation, the crude was "hydrostabilized" over cobalt molybdate at 500° F and 500 psig. Yields of reformate and cat-cracked gasoline as volume-percents of the crude, and research-method octane numbers (with 3 ml TEL) for the three methods were as follows: First method, 32 pet reformate, 90 octane; 19.5 pct cracked gasoline, 99.2 octane. Second method, 29 pet reformate, 81.1 octane; 21.3 pct cracked gasoline, 99.6 octane. Third method, 28.2 pet reformate, 86 octane; 28.7 pct cracked gasoline, 95.9 octane.

Jan 1, 1974

By V. A. Nieberlein

This paper presents the results of research undertaken to recover titanium and columbium by low-temperature chlorination of low-grade columbium-bearing ilmenite concentrates, and to simultaneously remove chlorinated impurities from the volatile chlorides without resort to distillation. Coke-reduced ilmenite was chlorinated at 400° to 500° C., and the resulting TiC14 was free of most impurities before condensation. A heated purification column was used wherein various packing materials reacted chemically or physically with the impurities which passed through them in the vapor phase. A nearly water-white TiC14 product was obtained directly. The principal impurities in the titanium tetrachloride were: 0.02 percent Fe, 0.01 percent V, 0.05 percent A1, 0.04 percent Si, and 0.07 percent Cb. This is a less pure product than commercial TiC14. Most of the columbium was recovered as crude CbC15, requiring further refining.

Jan 1, 1960

By J. H. East

Potash is one of the essential chemicals used in fertilizing soil deficient in natural minerals . Europe uses a large tonnage of potash in the form of easily soluble salts , and this is particularly true of those countries where the natural minerals in the soil have been exhausted owing to intensive cropping of the land . The application of potash to the soil in these countries is essential if normal crops are to be obtained ; during the war , some European countries were unable to obtain sufficient potash , and productivity of the farming areas declined seriously . • The largest -known deposits of potash in the world ; with the possible. exception of Russia , occur in Germany , and the German output of processed salts constituted about 65 percent of world production prior to the war . The German potash-plant installations are large , modern , brick and steel construction and apparently built for a planned operation of many years . Two districts produced approximately 80 percent of the German potash; the Werra -Fulda district , near Vacha , had the largest production , and the Sudharz district , near Nordhausen and Sonderhausen , was second . (Fig . 1. ) Hannover and Stassfurt were two smaller producers . Potash fertilizers are rated in terms of potassium oxide (K20 ) . The usual basis for calculation of production or application of the salt is to reduce the potash content to 40 percent K₂0 .

May 1, 1947

By David Hoadley, Kenneth R. Maser, Ashok B. Boghani, James E. Billar, D. Randolph Berry, Mackenzie Burnett, Robert H. Trent

D. 1 Most Effective Salts A. Ammonium Phosphates Monammomium phosphate and diammonium phosphate (salts of ortho phosphoric acid) are superior to the triammonium salt in fire-resisting properties. Of these two, the monammomium salt is chemically the more stable. It is also held very retentively by a number of woods, thus reducing leaching out of the salt if exposed to water. Saturated aqueous solutions of mon- or di-ammonium phosphates have vapor preservatives corresponding to an atmospheric relative humidity of 9Z to 93 percent, the wood, will, therefore, not attract any moisture at humidities below this figure. Low concentrations (1 lb dry fire-retardant per cubic foot of the dry, treated timber) will stop flame and high concentration (5 lbs. per cubic foot) will prevent smoldering. B. Ammonium Sulphate In low concentrations ammonium sulphate has only a small effect on flame propagation, but its effect is marked when concentrations of the order of 20 percent are employed. It has no appreciable effect on smoldering. It is more corrosive to metals than are the phosphates, but is less corrosive than ammonium chloride or magnesium chloride. It is possible to leach it out of wood by prolonged and continuous action of water The vapor pressure of the saturated solution corresponds to 81 percent atmospheric humidity.

Jan 1, 1976

By A. T. Coumbe, I. F. Avery

The Bureau of Mines has completed a survey of petroleum pipe - lines by direct correspondence with the oil companies and the use of the records of the Interstate Commerce Commission in order to cover both interstate and intrastate systems . The review shows that crude petroleum and product pipe -lines in the United States had a total length of 152,814 miles on January 1 , 1950 , an increase of 25,463 miles since May 1 , 1941 , the time of the last previous survey . The expansion in pipe -line systems was due largely to new trunk-line construction , as the mileage built to carry refined products increased by 11,880 miles , and those intended for crude -oil transportation gained 6,193 miles . Trunk lines represented 60 percent of all pipe -line mileage on January 1 , 1950 , compared with 58 percent in 1941 . The average diameter of trunk -lines for crude oil , as calculated on the various sizes and weighted according to their respective lengths , increased to 9.8 inches on January 1 , 1950 , compared with 8.4 inches on May 1 , 1941. The mileage for lines up to 8 inches used in crude trunklines has decreased since the 1941 survey , while those of larger sizes have increased . The extensive use of large- diameter oil pipe -lines has developed since the construction of two major lines from Texas to the East Coast at government expense as a World War II emergency measure . The successful operation of these lines proved their economic advantages over smallerdiameter lines as well as their effectiveness in moving unprecedented volumes of oil during the period when tanker movements were restricted by submarine action in the Atlantic Ocean . The 24-inch diameter " Big Inch " line carries over 300,000 barrels daily of crude oil , and the 20 -inch " Little Big Inch " carried over 230,000 barrels daily of gasoline and light fuel oils to destinations where they were urgently needed . Hence , Although these lines were sold and converted to natural -gas service in December 1946 , after fulfilling their wartime mission , their record proved to the industry that significantly lower operating and investment costs per barrel -mile of oil moved could be achieved than were possible with the comparatively small lines in general use up to that time . the several major oil pipe -line projects that have been constructed since the late war are of large diameter pipe . To assure supplies and market outlets of sufficient magnitude to support such lines and provide adequate flexibility , ownership is often shared by several large companies whose transport needs are served in common . The principal recent expansion in facilities has been from supply points in Southwestern States toward markets in the North and East and to Gulf tidewater .

Dec 1, 1950

By G. R. Hopkins

The petroleum-refining industry established a. new record in fuel effieciency at refineries in 1936, when 597,000 B. t. u. of heat mere required to refine a barrel of crude oil, compared with an average of 615,000 B. t. u. in 1935 (see fig. 1). The principal factor in the 'indicated gain in fuel efficiency at refineries in 1936 was an increase in crude runs of 11 percent over 1935. A large part of the heat utilized at refineries is consumed elsewhere than under stills, or in ways quite independent of crude-oil distillation. In other words, as the operating ratio ( crude runs divided by capacity) for re- fineries increases toward tine maximum of 100 percent, the fuel requirements show progressively smaller increases and the average B. t. u. consumption per barrel of crude refined declines.

Jan 1, 1938

By C. R. Bopp, N. A. C. Smith

"For a period of several years, beginning with 1915, there has been a continuous change in the quality of motor gasoline. The average volatility has decreased, this to the fact that higher boiling fractions of the crude oil have been included in the gasoline. This change in quality was made necessary by the tremendous increase in the demand for motor fuel, caused by the development of the motor car, and during the war was an absolute necessity to avoid gasoline shortages. The Bureau of Mines has kept in close touch with this situation by making surveys from time to time of the gasolines sold throughout the country, as this information is of value to manufacturers and users of motor cars and also indicates when any changes are required in the Government specifications. The Bureau has just completed a gasoline survey and is in a position to make public the fact that there has been very little change in the quality of motor gasoline in recent months.During the period from January 17 to February 3, 1920, 81 samples of actor gasoline were collected by representatives of the Bureau of Mines in seven districts of the United States. The cities selected for this survey were New York, N. Y., including Brooklyn; Washington, D. C.; Pittsburgh, Pa.; Chicago, Ill.; New Orleans, La.; Salt Lake City, Utah; and San Francisco, Cal., including Berkeley. In every case the samples collected were taken in such a manner as to represent material actually being sold as motor fuel, and to include samples from each refinery marketing in the district."

Jan 1, 1920

By Donald E. Graham

A mineral survey of a 12,350-acre portion of the 13,150-acre Juniper Creek Wilderness Study Area (WSA) in southwestern Idaho was conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines in 1984. The area is entirely underlain by thick flows of Banbury Basalt. Rhyolitic tuff of Little Jacks Creek is exposed in the walls of the Owyhee River canyon beneath the basalt. Minor units of lacustrine sediment occur between the volcanic layers. No mines or claims occur in the area, and no mineralized zones were found. The study area is covered by oil and gas leases or lease applications; there has been no known exploration.

Jan 1, 1985

By M. R. Peterson

The U.S. Bureau of Mines investigated column flotation for recovery of a high-grade fluorite (CaF2) concentrate and byproduct concentrates from the Fish Creek fluorite deposit in Eureka County, NY. The recovery scheme consisted of (1) grinding the ore to minus 48 mesh, (2) fluorite rougher and cleaner flotation, (3) desliming the rougher fluorite flotation tailings at 20 Jjm, (4) mica flotation, and (5) silicate rougher flotation. Acid-grade fluorspar, mica, free silica (Si02) sand, and low-grade beryl (Be3Al2S~018) concentrate were produced in a 100 lb/h continuous column flotation unit (CCFU). The highest results achieved were %.6-pct CaF2 recovery in a fIrst cleaner concentrate containing 99.7 pct CaF2. Beryl recovery was as high as 92 pct at a grade of 5.3 pct BeO. The silica sand, which assayed 98 pct Si02, was recovered as the rougher beryl flotation tailings. Collector reagent consumption was reduced 45 pct for fluorite and 58 pet for silicate flotation in comparison with bench-scale conventional flotation. All products were signillcantly improved in both grade and recovery over conventional flotation results, and the recovery scheme was simplifIed by removal of several stages of flotation in the fluorite and silicate flotation steps.

Jan 1, 1990

By G. S. Scott, G. W. Jones

Trichloroethylene (CHC1CC12) is an important solvent for fats , resins , bitumens, rubber , sulfur , and phosphorus . It is used extensively in drycleaning because of its low order of combustibility and has recently been proposed as an inhalation anaesthetic . Its physical properties have been described by Carlisle and Levine . It is usually considered a noninflammable material ; however , substances that are noninflammable when mixed with air are not necessarily noninflammable when mixed with oxygen . Thus , Hewer's statement that " Trichloroethylene*** is not inflammable under any circumstances , nor will its vapor explode when mixed in any proportion with air , oxygen, or nitrous oxide , " requires qualification , especially in anesthesia, where pure oxygen may at times be substituted for air , This report gives the results of tests made to determine the inflammability of trichloroethylene in various mixtures of oxygen and nitrogen . The trichloroethylene used was Eastman's No. 1300. The boiling point was given as 86 ° to 87 °C . The specific gravity and refractive index of the sample measured in this laboratory were , respectively, 1.45 and 1.4759 at 25 °C .

Nov 1, 1942

By J. L. Ambs

The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) Diesel Research Program emphasizes the development and evaluation of emission control devices to reduce exposure of miners to diesel exhaust pollutants. Studies by the USBM have shown that diesel exhaust aerosol (DEA) contributes a substantial portion of the respirable aerosol in underground coal mines using diesel equipment not equipped with emission controls. The USBM and the Donaldson Co., Inc., Minneapolis, MN, have developed a low-temperature, disposable diesel exhaust filter (DDEF) for use on permissible diesel haulage vehicles equipped with waterbath exhaust conditioners. These were evaluated in three underground, mines, to determine their effectiveness in reducing DEA concentrations. The DDEF reduced DEA concentrations from 70 to 90 pct at these mines. The usable life of the filter ranged from 10 to 32 h, depending on factors that affect DEA output, such 'as mine altitude, engine type, and duty-cycle. Cost per filter is approximately $40.

Jan 1, 2010

By Edward F. Courtney

Loss of life, loss of sight, crippling injuries, and property damage nearly always result from accidents involving explosives. The severity of such accidents has prompted lawmaking bodies to pass laws concerning the transportation, handling, and use of explosives; manufacturers of explosives publish manuals 'describing explosives and practical methods of handling then; and mining companies and others who use large quantities of explosives publish rules based on actual experience for the guidance of their employees. Careless storage of explosives by thoughtless or incompetent persons, particularly if they are left where children or saboteurs have access 'to them, has led to many serious accidents. Many contractors and mining operators who use explosives are extremely careless about storing them. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the explosive-handling practices of a large western mining company, which are considered better than most.

Jan 1, 1946

By D. A. Reynolds, A. C. Fieldner, S. H. Katz

"03-01-192403-31-2019RI 2591 - Reports of Investigations - Department of the Interior - Bureau of MinesBureau of MinesPittsburgh Experiment Station American Society of Heating and Ventilating EngineersU.S. Public Health ServicesTucson Experiment Station Introduction.""Carbon monoxide self-rescuers,"" or simply ""self-rescuers,"" are pocketsize gas respirators which protect the wearer from air contaminated with poisonous carbon monoxide gas. On March 6, 1924, the Bureau of Mines approved the ""M.S.A. self-rescuer’ manufactured by the Mine Safety Appliances Co., Pittsburgh, Pa., after the M.S.A- self-rescuer bad passed all the tests and requirements of the Bureau's Schedule 14A4.The purpose of the self-rescuer is to help miners to escape from mines in which fires are burning or explosions have occurred, by providing protection from carbon monoxide for at least one half-hour. The self-rescuer can be used similarly by workers above ground who may through accident become surrounded or entrapped by atmospheres containing carbon monoxide.no hazards threaten the miner, who escapes serious injury by fire or violence in a large mine fire namely, ( 1) asphyxiation by poisonous carbon monoxide gas; and (2) suffocation by insufficient oxygen to support life. In order to save himself, the miner must either erect a barrica4e5 against afterdamp and wait restoration of ventilation and rescue or take a long chance at getting out of the mine through entries not permeated by afterdamp.. The self-rescuer removes the hazard of carbon monoxide poisoning for one half-hour or more, and accordingly greatly increases the miner's chance of saving his life.This paper describes the construction and details of the M.S.A. self-rescuer as approved by the Bureau of Mines, and discusses its performance under test condition"

Mar 1, 1924

Objective To improve seats on mine shuttle cars with ergonomic design and by reducing shock impact transmitted through the mine vehicle seat to the vehicle operator. Background Operators of underground mobile equipment, particularly shuttle cars, are often exposed to significant levels of shock and whole-body vibration. Past studies have reported that as many as one-third of underground equipment operators could be exposed to adverse levels of shock and whole-body vibration. Moreover, seats on mining equipment, historically, are inadequate relative to the ergonomic needs of the equipment operator. In the extreme, amine vehicle seat has sometimes consisted of blocks of wood or a bent steel plate bolted to the machine frame. Also, the lack of sufficient vertical clearance in some underground mines is an impediment to providing adequate shock isolation systems on mine equipment seats. Approach The NIOSH Pittsburgh Research Center (PRC) is conducting research with viscoelastic foams to improve seats on mine shuttle cars. Viscoelastic foams were used in an ergonomically designed seat to reduce the amount of shock transmitted through the mine vehicle seat to the vehicle operator. Data on selected viscoelastic foams were analyzed from laboratory shock tests at PRC. Using information from the analysis, two ergonomic seats incorporating selected foam were constructed for in-mine testing on a shuttle car (Joy 21SC) in eastern Kentucky. The shuttle car operated in a 35-in-thick coal seam with an approximate mining height of 43 in. Operational data were recorded on the ergonomic and original seats. Further, the shuttle car operator was asked to compare these seats. Results When comparing the original seat (figure 1) with the ergonomic seat (figure 2), the shuttle car operator described the ergonomic seat as generally “much better” than the original seat. The operator explained. “It’s just easy to adjust. And it’s got the lower lumbar support. And the pad is thicker. It’s just much better all the way around.” He added, “It does support you more and [there is] less shock when you hit a hole...I liked the lower lumbar support. That’s where most of your shock is at, in your lower back.” The operational data supported the operator’s comments. In the full-load case, significant improvements in isolation were achieved(down to 15 Hz) with the ergonomic seat. Additional laboratory testing of seven viscoelastic foams was done to further improve the level of isolation from shock and better characterize the material properties of each foam. Data from this testing were used in an analytical model of the seat pan isolation system. Results showed that two of the viscoelastic foams, SUN-MATE EXTRA-SOFT and PUDGEE, gave the most effective shock isolation of the seven materials tested. A composite of EXTRA-SOFT and PUDGEE foams improved the isolation characteristics of the seat pan to approximately 4 Hz. Similarly, EXTRA-SOFT by itself provided isolation to 5 Hz. These results will be validated with future in-mine measurements. Cooperative Research Opportunity NIOSH is seeking cooperators to assist in further research and development of this technology. Additional information on cooperative reseach may be obtained by contacting Jacqueline H. Jansky, Technology Transfer Officer, NIOSH Pittsburgh Research Center, P.O. Box 18070, Cochrans Mill Rd., Pittsburgh, PA 15236-0070, phone: (412) 892-6615, fax: (412) 892-6678, e-mail:jgj7@cdc.gov

May 1, 1997