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By Thomas Kuhn

The detailed investigation of both active and inactive submarine hydrothermal systems has gained tremendous progress during the last decades because of the increasing usage of remotely operated vehicles (ROV) as well as manned submersibles. Special aspects like the targeted sampling of chimney structures and vent fluids as well as the analysis of zonations of near-surface structures like sulfides mounds was only possible with the usage of such vehicles. However, the availability of such vehicles has been very limited because of the few number of deep-water ROVs and manned submersibles which need both a trained crew and a special research vessel. This was especially true for the German science community which did not have such devices at its disposal until recently. With the ROV QUEST 5 which is based at the University of Bremen (c/o. Prof. Dr. G. Wefer, Dr. V. Ratmeyer) this major drawback has now been eliminated.

Jan 1, 2003

By Michael Johnston

Nautilus Minerals is exploring for high-grade gold, silver, copper, and zinc-rich submarine massive sulphide deposits (SMS) within the territorial waters of the sovereign state of Papua New Guinea. Work to date has shown that these systems contain spectacularly high metal grades. To date a total of 88 surface sulphide grab samples have been collected from Nautilus’ Solwara 1 Prospect within EL 1196 in the Manus Basin, returning average grades of 15.5 g/t gold, 191g/t silver, 10.8% copper, and 4.7% Zn. Drilling in January/February 2006 confirmed the presence of this high grade system, with sulphide intersections up to 19m below the sea floor, with a best intersection of 11.6m at 9.1 g/t Au and 13.1% Cu.

By V. K. Banakar

The occurrence of hydrogenous ferromanganese encrustations (Fe-Mn crusts) on the Cretaceous age Afanasiy-Nikitin Seamounts (ANS) in the eastern Equatorial Indian Ocean (EEIO) was first reported by Banakar et al. (1997, Marine Geology). The major element composition of the samples from the upper flank of the ANS (~1650 m water depth) indicated enrichment of Co up to 0.9 % (Parthiban and Banakar, 1999, Indian Mineralogist). Subsequently a project supported by the Department of Ocean Development to explore the ANS for Co-enriched Fe-Mn crusts was launched in 2002 by the National Institute of Oceanography. Sampling at regular depth intervals along two transects on the slopes of the northern elevated region of the ANS was carried out. The Fe-Mn oxide deposition is evident on almost all types of substrates viz., basalts, conglomerate limestone, fossil corals etc., and the thickness of the oxide layer varies from a patina to 7 cm. The Fe-Mn crust growth is evident only above a water depth of 3200 m, below which semi-lithified carbonate ooze is dominant. The ANS Fe-Mn crusts from all the water depths exhibit Mn/Fe < 1.5 suggesting pure hydrogenetic accumulation of metal-hydroxides. Bulk sample Ce-contents for a few selected depth-representative samples are remarkably high, up to 3700 ppm with an average of ~2500 ppm. The positive Ce-anomaly decreases from ~8 at 1600 m depth to ~1.6 at 3200 m depth, which is in contrast to the modern dissolved oxygen depth-profile in the region. This observation suggests that major time-period of the Fe-Mn crust accretion history is dominated by ambient waters with lower-oxygen at deeper depths than at the intermediate depths. This in turn probably suggests a major reorganization in the deep-intermediate hydrography of the region in the past.

Jan 1, 2005

By Burrows D. R.

Metal-rich sediments precipitating from hot saline brine pools were first discovered in 1965 in the Red Sea.1-2 The subsequent discovery of high temperature black smokers and associated massive sulphides in 1977 at latitude 21oN on the East Pacific Rise3 came more as a confirmation than a revelation. Formation of massive sulphides through precipitation from circulating sea-water had been predicted by Oftedahl in 19584, and the mechanisms well evaluated in basaltic-hosted Cyprus-type 5 and in Kuroko-type deposits.6,7 Sea-floor exploration from 1977 through the 1980?s in sediment-starved mid-oceanic ridge (MOR) settings had little impact on land-based exploration. This is primarily because: a) MOR spreading centres were recognized as poor analogies to even Cyprus-type basalt-hosted deposits; b) their preservation potential was limited due to rapid oxidation and c) the metallic deposits studied were small and therefore not directly comparable to the far larger ore bodies on land. More recently underwater mineral deposit research has focused in a variety of back-arc environments associated with felsic submarine volcanism, environments more similar to those predicted for the formation of Kuroko-type deposits (e.g. Okinawa Trough, 8 Lau Basin, 9 Manus Basin, 10 Aeolian arc, 11). Most studies, while scientifically interesting, were hampered, in general, by a lack of good descriptive data, a reliance on isolated grab samples, and a lack of sub-surface observations. This research has therefore had only limited direct impact on exploration strategies with the possible exception of research conducted in areas where faulting provided enhanced vertical exposures. 12

Jan 1, 2011

By Leticia Rosales Hoz

A chemical and geological study of beach samples from the Mexican North Pacific was undertaken in order to evaluate the chemical composition of the beach sediments and it s association to lithology, climate, topography and weathering. The North Pacific Mexican littoral is characterized by arid weather with wide coastal plains and three geological provinces. The sands from the area are mainly finer, well sorted and show high maturity because of the high wave regime and the high energy conditions produced by the California Current in the coastline. The provenance index reflects that the region has a source of deep seated rocks, now exposed and dissected. Factor analysis made using the chemical composition showed the samples can be differentiated by five factors: 1) SiO2, 2) Al2O3; 3) Cu; 4) Sr and P2O2 and 5) Na content. Samples located in the northof the study area showed the highest values of Fe2O3 (17.72%), TiO2 (2.43%), V (576 ppm) and Zn (141 ppm) associated to methamorphic rocks present in the area.

Jan 1, 2000

By Jai-Woon Moon

Lemkein seamount located in the west of the Kuwajleen Atoll of RMI is a relatively samll, simple-shaped, peaked type seamount with its base at 4,500 m and summit at 1,452 m water depths. Ferromanganese crusts were identified in the water depth range between 2,000 m and 2,500 m, and they were mostly observed on the northern slopes of the seamount. Among various substrate rocks, breccia occurred most commonly with crusts and formed the thickest crust layers. Average thickness of the Lemkein crusts was about 5 cm. Their chemical compositions were similar to other crusts found in the RMI area; Mn=25.82%, Fe=15.29%, Co=0.74%, Ni=0.56%. Lemkein crusts were characterized by their four distinctive internal layers; 1) Massive Layer 1; 2)Porous, Fe-stained or sediment infilled Layer 2; 3) Massive to slightly porous Layer 3; and, 4)Massive, Dense, Phosphotized, CFA veined Layer 4. Layers 1 and 2 were generally similar in composition, but highest Co concentrations were measured in Layer 1 while relatively higher concentrations of Al, Rb, Fe, and Ti were observed in Layer 2. Layer 3 showed higher concentrations of Ca and P than Layers 1 and 2. Based on the Co-chronography, the age of Layer 1 is 0¡?6 Ma (growth rate = 1.50 mm/Ma), Layer 2 is 6¡?15 Ma (1.75 mm/Ma), Layer 3 is 15¡?27Ma (1.76 mm/Ma), and Layer 4 is 27¡?45 Ma (2.06 mm/Ma). These preliminary results indicated that high Co contents in Layer 1 resulted from slow growth rates; Layer 2 was formed under relatively strong influence of high terrestrial input; and, Layer 3 was probably affected by a minor phosphatization event occurring in 15 Ma.

Jan 1, 2000

By Mikhail D. Ageev

The paper concerns with some questions of Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) control system design, which allows a motion at rough undersea terrain. The AUV advantages reveal itself completely during exploration of such objects as seamounts and reefs area. These objects are characterized by steep slopes (30 degrees and above) and chaotic situated obstacles (rock debris, pinnacles, escarpments). Uses of other technical facilities for operating in such formations are difficult, dangerous or impossible. These regions take an interest due to the presence of iron-manganese crusts. Modern AUV can estimate density of mineral by means of still camera or video recorder. For this reason the vehicle has to move with the distance of 3-5 meters from seabed. Under such conditions micro- and mesorelief presents a considerable danger for AUV. The AUV can bypass underwater obstacles in the various ways. However, in any case AUV motion will be characterized by intensive maneuvering on various speed (from 0 up to 1.5 m/s), circular change of tractive force vector and, hence, a circular flow about the hull. So, AUV is equipped with the propulsion system, which provides free modes of motion. AUV control system (CS) has tri-level structure to allow a motion in a rugged seabed terrain. According to the generally accepted categorizations, CS includes execution, coordination and strategic levels. The strategic level contains the goals of AUV mission. Obstacles avoiding and route choice are realized by means of simultaneous maneuver in vertical and horizontal planes. Sonar system is used for data acquisition about obstacles. It consists of a few echo-sounders with fixed directivity pattern. The route choice algorithm operates at two lower levels of CS. Basic (?reflex?) functions of spatial motion are realized within the execution level and considered in the paper. The choice of motion modes is carried out at the coordination level of system. All accessible navigating information (the data from flight sensors and from multichannel echo-sounder systems) is used for this purpose. In addition the bypass of characteristic types of obstacles is carried out with the help of basic motion modes combination. The modeling results of bypass of various typical obstacles, and also their combinations are described in the paper.

Jan 1, 2011

By Gérald Riverin

Over the past century, exploration methods for volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits have evolved in response to a decreasing number of discoveries made by traditional surface prospecting and by ground and airborne geophysics. Statistical trends support the concept that fewer and fewer outcropping and sub-cropping VMS discoveries will be made in the future. In turn, this creates new opportunities to develop more sophisticated exploration models and techniques to explore at greater depth and to make blind discoveries. Current exploration models include various combinations of geological, geochemical and geophysical criteria which have been based on the results of land-based VMS research. The role of seafloor research in the development of these models has so far been only of a subordinate nature, perhaps due to a lack of direct involvment of the exploration industry in the seafloor research, and vice-versa for the seafloor researchers in VMS exploration. Another contributing factor is that exploration relies on exploration criteria that result from detailed geological, geochemical and geophysical studies of both footwall and hanging wall rocks, studies that are not possible in modern sea floor environments. Nevertheless, seafoor research has contributed to our understanding of the growth of sulphide mounds, the mechanism of sulphide deposition and of the chemistry of fluids involved in VMS systems. In particular, the role of structure and of tectonic setting has been clarified through observation of active seafloor hydrothermal systems. In turn, observations made in land-based VMS research has helped seafloor researchers to focus on key issues which, will eventually contribute to improved exploration models.

Jan 1, 1998

By Robert G. Ditchburn

The NW caldera hydrothermal vent field at Brothers volcano, of the Kermadec-Tonga arc, has associated massive sulfide mineralization. This includes an abundance of black smoker chimneys that contain significant concentrations of copper, lead, zinc and gold (de Ronde et al., 2005; de Ronde et al, 2010, under review). [ ] The oldest volcanic massive sulphide (VMS) samples recovered so far from Brothers have been dated using radiometric methods at GNS Science and found to be c. 1000 years old. By contrast, a volcanic cone that has formed in the southern part of the caldera has no associated VMS. Only elemental sulphur and Fe-oxide crusts are present here, samples of which have been analysed for their trace elements. From d34S values of sulfates and native sulfur, and the volume of gas (dominated by CO2 and H2S) discharging at the cone site, elements being deposited here are considered more directly magmatic in origin (de Ronde et al., 2005; 2010 under review). It has been discovered that deep-seated changes in volcanic activity at Brothers affect the NW caldera and cone site simultaneously, though the mineralogy at each site is so very different. Thus, the cone site is being studied to determine if elements being deposited there can be used as predictors of potential future VMS mineralisation as similar sites have been found at other volcanoes along the Kermadec arc and elsewhere. The frequency of these deep-seated magmatic events is considered important in the formation of Cu-Au-rich mineralization along arcs. The analysis of Fe within resulting hydrothermal plumes (surveyed by surface vessels), and trace elements in rock and mineral samples, are used to help determine the influence of magmatic contributions to the hydrothermal system. To verify that plumes are a reliable proxy for hydrothermal events depositing iron on the seafloor, Fe-oxide crusts from Brothers volcano cone have been dated to see if their emplacement coincides with highly Fe-enriched plumes in the water column. The radiometric dating techniques developed for barite-rich VMS, i.e. using 228Ra and 226Ra, were unsuitable for the Fe-oxide crusts because 210Pb was the only isotope detected by gamma spectrometry. Therefore, new techniques using 210Pb, 10Be and arsenic have been established.

Jan 1, 2010

By Sven Petersen, Iain J. Stobbs, Bramley J. Murton, Paul A. J. Lusty

"INTRODUCTIONIt is widely thought that seafloor massive sulphide (SMS) deposits, the modern analogue of volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits, present a potential global resource for base (Cu, Zn) and precious metals (Au, Ag). In addition, SMS deposits can be enriched in ‘critical metals’ including Se, Te, Tl [1], which are essential for use in the construction of modern and green technologies. Globally over 340 high temperature hydrothermal sites have been identified at a range of ocean spreading centres [2], significant massive sulphide deposit formation has been recorded at 165 of these sites [3].To date only 13 deep sea sulphide deposits have undergone intrusive investigation (drilling or coring) and of these, only 6 sites have published tonnage estimates [2]. Almost all research and drilling of SMS deposits has been focused on active systems, the investigation of the morphology, subsurface structure and mineralogy of hydrothermally extinct seafloor massive sulphide (eSMS) deposits is almost non-existent.As such, little is known about the mechanisms that operate post-SMS formation and which have an impact on the preservation and hence resource value of SMS. Identifying these generic processes and mechanisms, and the extent to which they impact the resource grade, is critical in evaluating the global potential of SMS."

Jan 1, 2017

By Mark Vardy, Kasia-Leigh Chidlow, Tim Minshull, Jeorg Bialas, Sven Peterson, Bramley Murton, Alba Gil

Since the discovery of the first black smoker on the East Pacific Rise in 1977 (Francheteau, et al., 1979), the hydrothermal vents, now called seafloor massive sulphides (SMS) deposits, have generated great interest in the geological community, especially regarding their formation and composition. SMS deposits are areas of hard substratum, with high base metal and sulphides content, that form through hydrothermal circulation and are commonly found at hydrothermal vent sites. The high base metal (Fe, Cu, Zn, Pb), sulphur-rich mineral content has interested mining companies, due to their potentially high economic value. Currently, the known SMS deposits do not have the same dimensions as the massive sulphides (MS) found on land (covering just 10s to 100s m2) and pose significant mining challenges (being located in water depths between 800 m and 6000 m), meaning that they do not appear to be economically exploitable at present. However, these deep-sea mineral resources could be important targets in the near future, particularly with our ever-increasing demand for base metals. A key aim of the European Union-funded Blue Mining project is to develop techniques to robustly quantify SMS deposits dimensions (both surface expression and subsurface extent) and therefore assessing the suitability of SMS deposits for future economically viable and environmentally clean deep-sea mining operations.

Jan 1, 2017

By Gale L. Hubred

Kennecott?s Ledgemont Laboratory developed the Cuprion Process to recover metal values from manganese nodules in the early 1970s. A reducing leach of monovalent cuprous ion attacks the manganese oxide matrix, converting the manganese dioxide to manganese carbonate and releasing the copper, nickel, cobalt, and zinc as ammine complexes. Cuprous ion is generated by contacting leach liquor with carbon monoxide. Copper, and nickel, are recovered by solvent extraction and electrowinning. Cobalt is precipitated as cobalt sulfide and recovered as cobalt powder. Manganese, molybdenum, and zinc can be recovered optionally but have not been included in this process. Kennecott authors have described aspects of the process, but the Cuprion process has not been revealed except in patents. Tables are included for capital and operating costs and revenue. Even though economic recovery of nodules is not anticipated in the foreseeable future, some of the process steps may have application in other places. The Ledgemont Laboratory was a unique operation we think worth documenting. The report is based upon work done up until the mid 1970s. The report represents the work of the entire Kennecott nodule team. It is this author?s intention to save this result and credit the work of that nodule team. The paper is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Herbert Barner, a key member of the team who died in 2003.

Jan 1, 2005

An extensive ferromanganese nodule field south of New Zealand (Fig. 1) has existed beneath the flow of the Deep Western Boundary Current (DWBC) and Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) for at least the past 15 m.y. West of 174°E, between 59°S and 48°S, the field is 300-500 km wide, but east of 174°E, where current flow impinges on the eastern slope of the Campbell Plateau, the field narrows from ca. 200 km at 55°S to ca. 120 km at 51°S. This narrowing coincides with deflection of current flow eastwards, and consequent reduction in bottom-current velocity and eddy kinetic energy. Based on sea floor photographs, dredge samples and 3.5 kHz profile data, six distinct seafloor substrates are delineated, forming broadly parallel zones eastwards from the lowermost Campbell Slope (Fig. 2).

Jan 1, 2003

By Georgy Cherkashov, Vladislav Kuznetsov

The presentation describes new data concerning the age of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) hydrothermal fields. The collection of massive sulfides recovered from six hydrothermal fields has been dated using the 230Th/U method. The range of the data obtained is rather wide: from 2.2 up to 65.1 thousand years BP. Three stages of hydrothermal activity were detected for this 65 Kyr period of geological evolution: modern (0 -5), 20-25 and 58–65 thousand BP (Figure 1). This conclusion was confirmed by dating the associated metalliferous sediment layers which also indicate the hydrothermal events led to the formation of sulfide mineralization. There is a correlation between the age and size of massive sulfide deposits: older deposits are larger (Table 1). This and other applications of obtained data will be discussed in presentation.

Aug 24, 2006

By Raymond Kaufman

While there is no immediate worldwide shortage of hard minerals, the consumption of natural resources is constantly increasing, and there are ominous predictions of shortages to come. Means of meeting rapidly increasing demands are being implemented. These include such methods as exploration and discovery of new ore bodies, development of new mines, increasing production at existing mines, working or reopening known deposits of lower grade ore and tailings, recycling old materials, and developing more efficient and less wasteful processes to convert ores and metals into useful products. The United States, although itself mineral-rich, depends in large measure on imports for many key minerals and basic materials derived therefrom. According to the Department of the Interior, the U. S. depends upon imports for more than half of its supply of six of the basic thirteen raw materials required by any industrialized society - aluminum, chromium, manganese, nickel, tin, and zinc. By 1985 the country will also depend upon imports for more than half of its iron and tungsten, and by the year 2000 imports will have to supply more than half of the copper, potassium, and sulfur that it requires.

Jan 1, 1975

By Sebastian Ernst Volkmann, Felix Lehnen

"INTRODUCTIONWhile today’s mine planning of land-based ore deposits follows methods, which are well established, mining standards for the deep-sea have not established. Having gained a basic understanding of geological settings, there is still a lack of tools and methods to assess and plan future mining projects in the deep-sea. In the framework of the “Blue Mining” research project (2014-2018) technologies and methods for the exploration and exploitation of deep-sea minerals are developed that will bring deep-sea mining a step closer. The “Blue Mining” project receives funding from the European Commission (EC; Framework Programme 7; GA No. 604500) and addresses all aspects of the value chain in the field of deep-sea mining. The project philosophy is that deep-sea mining is planned and executed in the most responsible manner: Ensuring societal benefits and profitability at acceptable resource utilization and lowest possible environmental footprint (Volkmann 2014).Inspired by the high-tech farming industry, a concept to mine seafloor manganese nodules (SMnN) was developed. Mining is considered to be similar to the potato harvest on land (Figure 1), which involves mining a field partitioned into long, narrow strips (Volkmann and Lehnen 2017). The proposed mining system composes of one mining support vessel (MSV), one or two self-propelled, crawler-type seafloor mining tools SMT(s) and different types of underwater vehicles. The MSV follows the mining route of the SMT(s), picking up the about potato-sized nodules from the seafloor. The ore is pre-processed in situ and is lifted on board of the MSV, where the ore is dewatered and loaded onto bulk carriers for transport to the purchaser. Processing and refining of ore is not subject of “Blue Mining” research."

Jan 1, 2017

By Carl L. Kaiser

This abstract discusses selected recent technology developments at the Deep Submergence Lab at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution aimed at fundamentally changing the nature and scope of AUV operations in the deep ocean. The Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Sentry is described in its current configuration with discussion of emerging capabilities. Telepresence enhanced AUV operations are discussed including moving both operations and data processing personnel off the vessel. Autonomous Surface Vessel (ASV) aided AUV operations are discussed including recent experiments where an ASV provided both navigational aiding and a satellite based relay for acoustic communication of telemetery and mission redirection. New flexible communications strategies to perform intervention and manipulation tasks from an untethered vehicle are discussed. The abstract concludes with a brief discussion of industrial collaborations, including the newly launched Center for Marine Robotics.

Sep 14, 2011

By Sven Petersen, Berit Lehrmann, Bramley J. Murton, Paul A. J. Lusty

"INTRODUCTIONToday’s metal mining focusses on land based ore deposits which only consider one third of the Earth’s surface. Through an increasing global demand of strategic metals used in the electronic and green industry (Zepf et al. 2014), ‘uneconomic’ sites of lower grade in more technical challenging grounds such as greater depth and/or more remote areas are developed by the mining industry often resulting in higher environmental impact. However, considering the steady growth of the Earth population a shortage of certain metals may occur (Krausmann et al. 2009). In 2010, the United Nations allowed commercial exploration for seafloor massive sulphides (SMS) in international waters with currently six contractor licenses being granted.Although the number of discovered vent sites has steadily increased since the first discovery of hydrothermal venting at the Galapagos Rift in 1977 (Corliss et al. 1979) with more than 600 sites being known today, their economic potential is poorly constrained. So far Nautilus Minerals Inc., a Canadian mining company, is the only company having conducted a NI 43-101 resource estimate for the Solwara site, located in the territorial waters of Papua New Guinea. Other studies using bulk geochemical data from 95 sites published in literature do exist (Hannington et al. 2011, Monecke et al. 2016) suggesting a global resource potential for today’s known SMS deposits of 600 million tons with a median grade of 3 wt.-% copper, 9 wt.-% zinc, 2 g/t gold and 100 g/t silver. However, the geochemical data being used originated mainly from easily recoverable, mainly non insitu surface grab-samples and are under current mineral resource classification schemes such as JORC code or NI 43-101 not even accepted for resource estimations. Furthermore surface samples such as high-temperature sulphide chimney and talus material are not representative for the entire deposits with information regards thickness and continuity of individual sulphide layers obtained through drilling being scarce. In addition, it remains unknown what geological processes occur once hydrothermal activity ceases and whether metal tenor becomes enriched, depleted or disappears."

Jan 1, 2017

By Julian Malnic

The emerging marine minerals exploration and mining industry is currently focused mainly on the technical elements for its success such as developing exploration and mining technologies. However, in one sense, the technical challenges are quite soluble whereas those arising in the fields of the environment and public opinion could present this new generation of miners with problems that are far more difficult to overcome. One need only look at the issues currently faced by mining projects on land to see how powerful the new forces of so-called ?civil society? are in stopping mineral developments in many countries. From the geographic viewpoint, there are many countries but there is just one ocean, so the impacts experienced by any one operation are likely to have pervasive repercussions throughout the industry. A well-oiled NGO development protest lobby will see leverage in resisting this new industry and will seize on the single-ocean angle. The Australian Minerals Industry has established a voluntary Code for Environmental Management that provides an active and valuable model for satisfying the ?court of public opinion? and in delivering economic results to industry that are in current jargon, sustainable. An explanation of the Code for Environmental Management, and the reasons behind 44 companies representing more than 300 operations and 85% of Australia?s sizeable mineral production being signatory to it will be given. Participants see it as a means to future shareholder wealth.

Jan 1, 2000

By Richard C. Newell

The United Kingdom marine aggregate mining industry is the second largest of its kind after Japan. Materials for the construction industry, sea defences and for many other purposes are exploited from shelf waters at depths of 30-50 metres by self-contained suction dredgers which often screen material to obtain a cargo of a particular quality. Assessment of the environmental impact of such mining activities both within the boundaries of the dredged areas, and in the zone of deposition of outwash from the dredger has in the past been mainly based on predictive models based on the settlement rates of the individual particles and assumed Gaussian diffusion principles during the settlement phase. Recent studies which we have made on both the mass balance for materials rejected during the dredging process and direct measurements of the settlement of material in the dispersing plume suggest that the zone of settlement is much less than that predicted from diffusion models. Instead of a downstream settlement plume of 10-20 km in the tidal currents of U.K waters, our measurements show that inorganic components of the dredger plume reach background levels in the water column within 880 metres.

Jan 1, 2000