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By John K. Hammes, Stanley D. Michaelson

Generally, the mining costs reported for the large open-pit operations in the United States and South America lie within the range of $0.20 to $0.30 per ton of material moved. (These operations have strip- ping ratios ranging from 1.5 to 4.0.) Productivities for the larger North American properties are in excess of 200 tons of material per man shift, while those for the South American operations are less than 200 tons per man shift. The most significant variations in cost are in the categories of haulage and general mine cost. Haulage costs vary, as expected, according to the mine elevation, pit profile, crusher location, and accessibility of a dump area, and general cost variations depend largely on the overhead cost items included in this category. Drilling and Blasting Practice The majority of open-pit copper mine production drilling is performed by rotary drills. Hole diameter varies from 6 in. to 12 in., with 9-in. holes being most common, and penetration rates vary from 35 ft to 60 ft per hour.

Jan 1, 1968

By N. Plint, E. T. Pinkney

Copper segregation developments within the Anglo American Group are described with particular reference to the work of the TORCO Project Team. Some radical differences have been adopted in the mechan-ical approach as compared with methods used by previous workers. Most important among these are the following: (1) The heating unit is a fluidized-bed roaster. (2) A moving bed segregation chamber is used in which a packed bed of heated ore, to which reagents have been added, moves slowly downwards under gravity and is discharged at a controlled rate by means of a suitable valve mechanism. (3) The quantities of reagents used (sodium chloride and some form of carbon) are only a small fraction of those recommended by other investigators. (4) Retention times of only 2 min have been satisfactory for the complete segregation of many types of ore. Project TORCO is the code name given by Anglo American Corp. of South Africa, Ltd., to the investigation undertaken in Zambia to develop a plant capable of treating large tonnages of refractory copper-bearing ores by the segregation process. The process has now been under investigation for six years (1960-66) and during that period work has progressed from bench-scale laboratory tests through small-scale pilot-plant work to a 500-tpd commercial pilot unit. Test work has been carried out mainly on the ores of the Zambian Copperbelt and results have been encouraging. Recoveries on the order of 90% have been obtained on all Copperbelt ores tested with high concentrate grades. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION Laboratory scale segregation test work on Nchanga banded sandstone ore and oxidized ore from Kansan-shi was originally conducted by Professor Maurice Rey. SociCtC Miniere et Mktallurgique de Pefiarroya, in 1957. Both ores responded favorably to the process. In November, 1960, the consulting engineers of Anglo American Corp. of South Africa, Ltd., initiated preliminary investigations on the application of the segregation process to Copperbelt ores. In early laboratory work, samples were heated in a closed, externally heated tube furnace for one hour at temperatures ranging from 800 to 830°C. The free moisture content of the ore feed was 4% and reagent additions were 0.5% salt and 1.0% coal. Both salt and coal were pre-crushed to -48 mesh Tyler.* All samples except an ore from the Bancroft mine responded well to the process and recoveries of over 90% were obtained. The presence of dolomite was responsible for the relatively poor recoveries from the Bancroft ore, as tests on one of the other ores with additions of calcite or dolomite confirmed. Recoveries dropped from 94 to 45% Grades of all the rougher flotation concentrates produced were low at 10-15% copper. The laboratory investigation was then followed up on a pilot-plant scale. An attempt was made to carry out the segregation process in a coal-fired 5-ft-diam fluidized-bed roaster. The feed consisted of a banded sandstone from Nchanga to which 0.5% sodium chloride had been added. Reducing conditions were maintained in the roaster by the addition of coal in excess of that required for heating the feed. The excess coal and added salt constituted the segregation reagents and the temperature of the bed was held at approximately 750°C. Recoveries of copper and grades of concentrates were low. The reasons for lack of success were: (1) The reaction is a gaseous one and a fluidized-bed roaster is therefore unsuitable as a segregation unit. (2) Coal in excess of that required for heating was introduced into the fluidized bed and under these conditions some of the copper would be reduced in situ. The term "reduced in situ" is used here to describe any copper mineral reduced to the metallic state in its original site within the ore particles. If this copper is to be recovered by subsequent froth flotation it must first be liberated from the gangue by grinding or some other method which, in practice, is usually not feasible on ores of this type.

Jan 1, 1969

By D. J. Rose, W. M. Armstrong, A. C. D. Chaklader

The wetiability of single crystals of MgO by specimens of vacuum-cast iron was studied using the sessile drop technique in vacuo at 1550ºC. Formation of FeO at the liquid-vapor interface caused the contact angle (6) to decrease from 117 to 65 deg during the first minute. After cooling, all specimens possessed a peculiar annular interfacial deposit of Fe,O,. Within the annulus the interface showed no sign of chemical attack. Chemical reaction occurred where the iron was alloyed with Ti, V, Cr, Nb(Cb), Ta, cmd Zr. Vnriation of 6 with alloy concentration was studied. Although vanadium md chromium improved the wettability of MgO by iron, the effect of Zr, Ti, Nb, and Ta was indeterminable because the 8 derived from sessile drop considerations was that of the metal against a restrictive peripheral volume of liquid oxide wetting the substrate. INTEREST in the nature of metal-ceramic interactions has been stimulated by progressive development of metal-ceramic combinations. One of the more valuable methods used for bond investigation is the sessile drop technique. Recent attempts to improve wettability through solute additions to the drop have revealed that the solute may a) react with the oxide creating new compounds at the solid-liquid interface, b) adsorb at the interface in a monolayer formation, or c) distribute throughout the drop uniformly causing no wettability variation. This work, part m in a series1,2 of investigations of interface reactions between metals and ceramics, embraces a study of the Fe-MgO system. MgO possesses a large negative free energy of formation (-173 kcal per g mole 0, at 1550ºC) compared to FeO at this temperature (-73 kcal per g mole 02). Hence the electronegativity difference between the drop and substrate allows selection from an extensive group of metal solutes with intermediate electronegativity differences that would, in the absence of chemical reactions, be expected to adsorb pre- ferentially at the solid-liquid interface. However, the high oxygen pressure of MgO in vacuo creates an oxidation environment which influences the solute behavior. Recent studies of the Fe-MgO systemJ74 have been restricted by chemical reactions that obscured observations. In view of the current interest in liquid-phase sintering of metal-ceramic combinations under partial oxidizing conditions,5 a more comprehensive study of the Fe-MgO system seemed beneficial. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 1) Specimen Preparation. Optical-grade MgO single crystals and Ferrovac vacuum-cast iron were used in all experiments. A spectrographic analysis of the iron indicated 0.008 C, 0.05 V, 0.005 Mo, 0.01 Ti, 0.002 S, 0.01 Cr, 0.001 Mg, 0.01 Si, 0.003 A1 (wt pct). The MgO crystals were cleaved along (100) planes into plates approximately 20 by 20 by 1 mm. Following annealing in vactto at 1100°C for 3 hr, surface irregularities were removed by a chemical etch in phosphoric acid at 100°C. The iron rod was machined into small cylinders approximately 0.250 in. in diam and length and these were carefully cleaned in organic and acidic solutions to remove surface impurities. All specimens were weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg. 2) Apparatus. The apparatus described in detail by previous authors1,2 was modified for this work. A Polaroid Land Camera was incorporated into the optical system so that drop measurements at ten-second intervals after melting were possible with ultra-high-speed self-develop ing film. 3) Procedure. The iron cylinders were placed upright on the MgO plates and positioned in the molybdenum susceptor. After furnace assembly the system was pumped down to a vacuum of 1 µ and flushed with H2 at 800°C. The system was again evacuated to 5 x 10-5 mm of mercury and the temperature raised to 1550°C within 2 min. The molten drops were photographed at appropriate time intervals. TWO min after melting the iron vapor pressure caused gas discharge, or corona, within the tube. The specimens were then slowly cooled to room temperature, sectioned and examined metallographi-cally. X-ray identification of interfacial reaction products was attempted by the powder diffraction technique. Alloying elements (Ti, V, Cr, Zr, Ta, Nb) were added to the iron in various concentrations up

Jan 1, 1963

By E. A. von Hahn, T. R. lngraham

The rates of cementation of pd11 on electropolislzed copper cylinders were studied in aqueous perchloric acid solutions at pdII concentrations from 0.02 to 0.1 mM. The cylinders were rotated at various high speeds to reduce the diffusion layer to a minimum thickness. In 0.1 M HClO4 solutions, the cemented palladium is dense, adherent, and shiny. The rate data indicate that there are two stages in the deposition. In the initial stage, the rate of cementation is first order with respect to the pd11 concentration. The second stage is much slower. The first stage is consistent with rate control by the diffusion of pd11 ions to the copper surface, and/or chemical reaction at the surface, and the second stage is consistent with rate control by the diffusion of copper ions from the cop-per surface through the deposit of cemented palladium, out to the main body of solution. In 0.001 M HClO4 solution, only the first stage is evident and the rate is more rapid than at higher acidities. This rate enhancement is attributed to PdOH+ ions that predominate at low acidity and aye more reactive than unhydrolyzed pdII. The deposit is porous and loose. All of the cemented deposits are Pd-Cu alloys rather than pure palladium. Activation energies are 9.5 kcal per mole in 0.1 M HClO4 and 7.4 kcal per mole in 0.001 M HClO4. CEMENTATION or displacement reactions occur between aqueous solutions of metal salts and immersed metals according to the general equation: where M1 is electrochemically the more noble metal. Although these reactions find considerable application in metals recovery processes (e.g., the cementation of copper192 or gold3), in electrorefining processes (e.g., solution purification before electrolysis4,5), and in plating and metal finishing processes,6 few studies have been made of the kinetics of such reactions.7-9 The rates of cementation reactions will depend on one or more of the following factors: a) chemical reactions at the metal-solution interface; b) ionic transport to or away from the interface;'-' and c) the character and adherence of the cemented deposit on the substrate metal,6a,10 because the deposit will inhibit the rate of transport of dissolving ions (M2m+) into the solution. In this investigation, the kinetics of the early stages of cementation were studied to obtain an understanding of the reaction mechanism under conditions in which the deposit was sufficiently thin that its inhibiting effect could be disregarded. To achieve this, very dilute solutions in Mn+ were used. Cementation rates are often fast in the initial stages and transport-contr01led.9 To find conditions under which transport control would shift to chemical control, very high stirring velocities were used to minimize the diffusion-layer thickness. Of the many possible cementation reaction systems, the palladous perchlorate-copper system was chosen for this investigation because it was believed to involve simple ion-for-ion exchange. In addition, there are no interfering side reactions, such as the reduction of hydrogen ions, and anion effects are usually absent in perchlorate solutions. EXPERIMENTAL Materials. Reagent-grade chemicals and redistilled water were used in all experiments. Palladous perchlorate stock solutions (0.02 M) were prepared by dissolving 99.5 pct Pd sponge (Johnson Matthey and Mallory Ltd.) in concentrated nitric acid, adding concentrated perchloric acid, evaporating twice slowly (to prevent PdO precipitation) to a small volume, and diluting in a volumetric flask. To prevent gradual hydrolysis of PdII, the stock solutions were made 0.4 M in HC104. Tests for pdIV (Ref. 11) and C1- were negative. Copper strips were cut accurately from 0.025-in. electrolytic tough pitch sheet, Sample 1 (Mines Branch stock or Canadian Copper Refineries Ltd., Montreal), or from oxygen-free, high-conductivity sheet, Sample 2 (American Metal Climax O.F.H.C. brand, sold by Utility Brass and Copper Corp., Brooklyn). The strips were annealed for 1 hr at 335°C in a stream of purified nitrogen (Union Carbide, Linde Division) which had

Jan 1, 1967

By Z. Moser, W. Ptak

The experiments were carried out by the method of measuring the electromotive force of concentration cells having zinc as a reference electrode, the second electrode being the liquid alloy Zn-Sn-Cd-Pb. The electrolyte consisted of liquid chlorides and had zinc ions. The measurements were made for seventy -five alloys of different mole fractions within the temperature range of 714° to 877°K. The experimental results enabled the calculation of the activity of zinc in tested solutions. The activities of zinc were calculated by means of Krupkowski's formulas.3 In addition, the formulas for coefficients of activity of zinc, tin, cadmium. and lead as the function of composition and temperature were given. Activity of zinc was compared with the values obtained from experimental results, and good agreement has been observed. On this basis it can be stated that the theoretical formulas are suitable for determining the thermodynamic properties of liquid quaternary metal solutions. IN the metallurgical processes being carried out at present multicomponent liquid metal solutions take part. For the thermodynamic analysis of these processes it is necessary to know the thermodynamic properties of these solutions. Therefore, many experimental and theoretical papers deal with this problem. The theoretical papers are generally based on the assumption that the structure of liquid metals is similar to their structure in the solid state. In this manner the model of liquid solution, consequently described by means of statistical thermodynamics, has been accepted. This method is being lately developed, especially for solid solutions. Statistical thermodynamics was applied among others by Guggenheim 1 for describing the thermodynamic properties. Unfortunately, the formulas of statistical thermodynamics are often not suitable for the interpretation of experimental results. Attention should be drawn to the relations obtained by means of formulas of phenomenological thermodynamics which always have constants derived with the aid of experimental methods. In the case of the multi-component solutions which contain some additions of impurities besides the basic metal, wagner2 introduced interaction parameters. Equations for the relationship between the activity coefficients and composition were also given by Krupkowski." he application of these formulas requires a good knowledge of the thermodynamic properties of the corresponding binary systems. In these formulas, as in Wagner's, there appear constants which should be determined from ex- perimental data. Nowadays, different experimental methods are applied for evaluating the thermodynamic functions of solutions, for instance: vapor pressure measurements, calorimetric methods, and the measurements of electromotive force of concentration cells. In the present paper this last method for evaluating the thermodynamic properties of four-component systems, Zn-Sn-Cd-Pb, was applied. For instance in the case of Zn-Sn solutions Alabyshev and Landratov, 4 Fiorani and Valenti, 5 and ptak6 performed the investigations. The Zn-Pb system was worked out by Kleppa 7 and Cd-Pb and Cd-Sn by Elliot and chipman.' This method was also applied for determining the activity of zinc in ternary solutions. 1) EXPERIMENTAL METHOD The experimental arrangement with detailed description is given in Fig. 1. It consists of resistance furnaces, one serving for melting samples and the other containing the flat-bottomed, measuring quartz tube with the liquid electrolyte. Liquid metals and alloys are in glass supremax tubes, which have an opening in their lower part above the metal level. This opening allows the filling of the tubes by the electrolyte. In these tubes tungsten wires are placed which by means of suitable conductors are connected with a potentiometer. It is assumed that tungsten dissolves Fig. 1—Schematic diagram of the experimental arrangement for the investigation of the thermodynamic properties of liquid metal solutions: 1, resistance furnaces; 2, autotransfor-mers; 3, galvanometers; 4, regulator of temperature; 5, gas purifier with concentrated H2SOP; 6, U-tube with P2O5; 7, thermostats; 8, steel block for thermostating; 9, supremax tubes for alloys; 10, tungsten electrodes; 11, inlet and outlet of argon; 12, measuring quartz tube; 13, tube for melting samples; 14, tube for thermocouple; 15, cover of quartz tube; 16, rubber seal; 17, bottom cover; 18, outlet of electrodes to potentiometer; 19, outlet of thermocouples to potentiometer; 20, upper view of the quartz tube cover; 21, orifices for cover screws; 22, orifice for argon inlet; 23, orifice for thermocouple; 24, orifices for tubes containing liquid metals; 25, inlet for water-cooling system.

Jan 1, 1969

By O. P. Arora, M. Metzger, G. R. Ramagopal

The rates of grain boundary and general corrosion were surveyed by an approximate method. Quantitative differences between their variations with the strength or cupric ion content of the acid yielded large variations in their ratio, highly selective intergranular attack being observed only under specific chemical conditions. The boundary corrosion rate increased with the copper content of the aluminum; this was attributed to an autocatalytic effect similar to the one shown for general corrosion. High- purity aluminum in hydrochloric acid exhibits striking intergranular corrosion and other structure-dependent corrosion phenomena of fundamental interest. The behavior is highly sensitive to the metallurgical and chemical conditions, the significance of many of which has not been established. The features of the intergranular-corrosion phenomenon, first described by Rohrman,l are summarized in the remainder of this paragraph. Strong attack normally occurs only at high-angle grain boundaries.' Usually 15 to 25 pctHCl is used to obtain a high rate, but this has also been obtained with weaker (7 to 15 pct) acid either by adding cupric or ferric ion to the acid3-5 or by passing an anodic current (-0.1 ma per sq cm).2,3,5,6 The two latter corrosion conditions produce strong attack of low-angle boundaries after certain heat treatments 2-4,5,7 The susceptibility of high-angle boundaries is influenced by the grain-boundary segregation of iron atoms; this increases the slow (µ per month) attack in 10 pct HCl8 but diminishes the rapid (mm per month) attack in 20 pct Hc14 (the present and most previous investigations deal with rapid attack). That segregation of elements other than iron affects intergranular corrosion has not been demonstrated, although analysis of data for iron alloys indicated that at least one other element must be considered.9 Intergranular attack occurs over a wide range of purity although it begins to become obscured above several hundred parts per million (ppm) total im- purities by the severe general corrosion which accompanies the higher iron contents and which is associated with the presence of a second phase or an inhomogeneous distribution of the dissolved iron.4,6,10 The variation of intergranular-corrosion rate with heat treatment1'3-6'"10 can be explained in some cases in terms of the distribution of the iron impurity but is not in general adequately understood. The present work dealt with two questions not previously considered in detail. The first proceeded from the view that the extent to which a special behavior is associated with the boundaries is indicated not by the intergranular corrosion rate alone but by the ratio of the intergranular to the general corrosion rate. A comparison of the two rates was therefore made for one lot of aluminum in acids of varying strength and metallic ion content. The second question was the effect of the copper content of the aluminum. For general corrosion, it has long been known that copper ions introduced into the acid by corrosion of the solid solution are reduced on the aluminum as patches of elemental copper which enhance the corrosion rate by providing cathodes of lower hydrogen overvoltage than were originally present.''-'3 Since the copper patches remain themselves unchanged, their action is "catalytic", and since they are products of corrosion, the effect is "autocatalytic." This phenomenon is significant at copper levels much lower than previously suspected, even at those typical of high-purity aluminum, as the authors have shown in a previous paper.l4 The present work shows that copper content affects intergranular corrosion. With polycrystalline specimens, truly quantitative rate measurernents are not readily made for intergranular corrosion or for general corrosion in the presence of rapid intergranular attack, and previous work in this field has tended to be qualitative. The present study made use of a simple procedure which provided fair approximations to the quantitative corrosion rates and fitted the purpose of surveying the behavior over % wide range of conditions and displaying certain large effects. The approximations involved in this work were usually outweighed by the experimental scatter, which tends to be substantial in a system as sensitive as this one. I) EXPERIMENTAL A. Material. The material procured, Table I, represented three low copper (1 to 3 ppm) lots, two of "normal" copper content (21 and 22 ppm), and two

Jan 1, 1962

By G. Purcell, S. C. Sun

In an attempt to determine the relative collecting ability of 18-carbon fatty acids, studies were performed on rutile in aqueous solutions of the fatty acid soaps. The preceding article reported the electro-kinetic properties; this article outlines the flotation behavior. Results of these flotation experiments are described and correlated with the electrokinetic results. Recent studies of the electrokinetic1-4 and the electrochemical5,6 properties of a few solid-liquid interfaces have provided a better understanding of the flotation process. A number of investigators have attempted to determine the relative collecting ability of 18-carbon fatty acids, but their published results (even for the same mineral) vary widely. Such lack of agreement indicated a need for further investigation. In an effort, therefore, to resolve the problem, electro-kinetic studies were made on rutile in aqueous solutions of the fatty acid soaps. Following the determination of the electrokinetic properties, the flotation behavior of rutile was studied. Results of these flotation experiments are described in this paper and are correlated with the electrokinetic results. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Materials: Pure -28, + 35-mesh rutile crystals were used for all flotation tests, and nitrogen-saturated conductivity water was used throughout. Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid were added for pH regulation. The methods of purification for these materials and the preparation of the soaps have been described elsewhere. 7 Equipment: A Hallimond cell, constructed in a manner similar to that described by Fuerstenau, Metzger and Seele,8 was used for the flotation of mineral particles; however, a coarse pyrex frit was substituted for the capillary. Procedure: Purified nitrogen was led through a two- way stopcock into a graduated cylinder partly filled with water. The gas forced water from the cylinder back into a header tank until the water level in the cylinder coincided with a predetermined mark. Reversal of the stopcock then allowed water in the tank to force nitrogen into the cell until the water in the graduated cylinder rose to a second predetermined mark. In this way a constant volume of nitrogen under practically constant pressure was used for each flotation test. However, the flotation time varied, depending upon the amount of mineral floated and the pH of the solution. Rutile crystals were transferred under water from a storage bottle by a glass scoop holding 1.7 g. Consistency of the scoop samples was good, varying from a low value of 1.67 to a high of 1.74 g. The water added to the conditioning bottle during mineral transfer was drained off, and then 2 cu cm of either hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide were added. The concentration of pH regulator was adjusted to give approximately the final soap solution pH that was required. The order of addition of reagents did not affect the results within the limits of experimental error. Soap solution of the required concentration was added under nitrogen pressure to fill the bottles completely. Conditioning for 1 hr was carried out on rolls rotating at 35 rpm. After conditioning, 2.5 cu cm of solution were run off into the container of a Beckman (model G) glass electrode pH meter. The electrodes were rinsed in this solution, which was then discarded, and 2.5 cu cm more were added for pH determination. The remaining solution and the mineral were transferred to the cell; care was taken to ensure that all mineral was washed out of the bottle by the conditioning solution. With the cell back in its flotation position the liquid just reached the desired level, and the test was started immediately. The amount of agitation in the cell was kept constant, and flotation was carried out without the use of a frother. In each series of ten tests one was run with no collector added to ensure that the mineral had not become contaminated, and two were conditioned at the same pH to check reproducibility. After each test the cell was dismounted, soaked in cleaning solution, washed in hot water and then rinsed with distilled water.

Jan 1, 1963

By C. E. Kemp, A. B. Dyes

Results of a field research project on the thermal recovery of oil by movement of a combustion front are presented. This field test was conducted in the South Belridge field, This The war paitern was a Southsing1e 2.5-acre five-spot pattern in the 700-ft deep Tulare sand. Results of this project indicate the technical feasibility of producing high viscosity, low-grallity crude oils by thermal means. It was demonstrated that heavy oils could be moved rapidly over considerable distances by thermal drive, and that high percentage recoveries of oil could be effected. The bulk of the oil recovery came after arrival of the burning front at a production well. However, rapid corrosion and high-temperature failure of conventional pipe and equipment both below and above surface occurred. Stainless steels gave more satisfectory performance under these conditions than did conventional steels. Oxygen was seldom observed in gas from wells ahead of the burning front, and it appears that the front was continuous throughout the life of the experiment. INTRODUCTION During late 1953 and early 1954, industry-wide attention was focused on the thermal recovery of oil by movement of a combustion front through an oil zone. Two separate Oklahoma field tests were described in publications by Kuhn and Koch, and Grant and Szasz. To obtain basic information needed for making engineering and economic appraisals of commercial recovery of heavy oil by this thermal recovery method, a new field research projecta3,4 was started May 31, 1955. Twelve oil companies contributed to this project with General Petroleum Corp. as operator. Since combustion recovery experiments* with heavy oils in other areas had been conducted in small patterns,"' an important purpose of this test was to determine whether the process could be operated in a pattern of near-commercial well spacing. The south Belridge field, located 30 miles north of Taft, Calif., was chosen because its oil sands are similar to many heavy oil sands which typically have low primary recovery and leave a large amount of oil in place. such fields are not particularly suited for common secondary recovery methods. DESCRIPTION OF TEST SITE The test interval was a Tulare sand at a depth of about 700 ft. Nine test wells were drilled, cored and completed from Oct., 1955, through Jan., 1956. The initial pattern shown on the map, Fig. 1, consisted of an injection well (II)', four producing wells (1P-4P), and four observation wells (IT-4T). An old well (81) was also recompleted for use as an observation well. The area enclosed by the original four production wells was 2.5 acres; the distance from the injection well to each production well was 233 ft. During the combustion period, Well 5P was drilled to replace Well 2P, and Well 6P was drilled to replace Well 3P. The new wells were 25 ft beyond the old production wells along a diagonal from the injection well, and resulted in an increase in pattern area to 2.75 acres. Isopachs are shown in Fig. 1. The average thickness of the oil sand in the test pattern was 30 ft. Fig. 2 presents two cross sections through the test pattern. Oil sand is represented by white and claystone by gray. The dashed lines indicate layers of conglomerate grading to claystone. The sand thickness was fairly uniform throughout the test pattern except in the 1P area. The sand body dips gently from the northwest to southeast, about 3 degrees from horizontal. The sand is unconsoli-dated, and grades from very fine material to pebbles as large as 2 in. in diameter. Table 1 presents the average initial properties of the formation. The in-place porosity of 37 per cent was estimated from the porosity of coke-consolidated cores taken after combustion. Original core analyses data were adjusted to 37 per cent, giving pore volume saturations of 60 per cent oil, 37 per cent water, and 3 per

By G. T. Hahn, C. N. Reid, A. Gilbert

An evaluation is made of the possible cautsal relationship between twinning and fracture in molybdenum. For both single and poly crystalline material no instance of twin-induced fracture was observed. Instead brittle fracture was found to be slip-induced at heterogeneities. For single-crystal material, the yield stvess in compression and the fracture stvess in tensiow obey a similar angular- relationship which follows approximately a 1/cos2 ? law. where 0 is the angle between the specimen axis and the nearest (100) plane. This sittlilarity between yield and fracture behavior casts doubt on the interpretations made previoltsly that a 1/cos2? relationship supports a critical normal fracture stress criterion. SINCE fracture in brittle materials takes place at stresses an order of magnitude lower than the theoretical strength of the lattice, it must be postulated that some stress-concentrating effect is operative during the fracture-initiation process. Several mechanisms have been proposed whereby the necessary stress concentrations could be produced. The well-known Cottrell mechanism1 describes a dislocation interaction which can lead to the formation of an incipient cleavage crack on a cleavage plane, and both zener2 and stroh3 have discussed models which predict the stress concentration at the intersection of a slip band with a grain boundary. When twinning occurs twin/twin intersections and twin/grain boundary intersections represent another possible means of fracture initiation. Although still controversial, the concept of twin-induced fracture is supported by a weighty mass of evidence, which has been reviewed in a recent paper.4 This investigation was conducted in order to assess the extent to which the brittleness of molybdenum can be ascribed to this cause. Emphasis was placed on seeking direct metallographic evidence for twin-induced fracture such as arrangements of twins located at the fracture origin. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM Materials. The experimental materials are described inTable I. From the chemical analyses and estimates of the amounts of interstitials likely to be retained in solution,5 it is concluded that all were mul-tiphased systems. X-ray diffraction experiments6 showed no evidence of preferred orientation in the polycrystalline materials. Single crystals were grown from Molybdenum X and Y using the floating-zone technique,' in a vacuum of better than 3 x 10-5 Torr. However difficulties were experienced with Molybdenum X due to violent gas evolution from the molten zone, and additional crystals (Crystals 3 to 6) were produced by annealing for 5 1/2 hr at 2300°C under a vacuum of 10-4 Torr. Techniques. A series of tension, compression, and bend tests was conducted. Tension tests were used to demonstrate brittle behavior, to measure brittle-fracture stresses, and to provide fractured specimens for metallographic inspection. Compression tests were employed in order to obtain some ductility and a measure of the yield stress. Furthermore, it was considered that compression loading would permit the study of crack nucleation in the absence of propagation. The bend tests were conducted to facilitate identification of the fracture origin, which would be expected to be at, or near, the tensile surface of the sample. Tests were carried out at temperatures between 78" and 298°K attained by means of a liquid-nitrogen evaporator of modified Wessel design.' Specimens were fashioned by mechanical grinding, and, prior to heat treatment, were electropolished at 10 v in a 3:l mixture of ethyl alcohol and sulfuric acid, using a stainless-steel cathode. Except where noted, a strain rate of 4 pct per min was used. All specimens had a gage section 0.75 in. long; diameters of 0.10 and 0.20 in. were adopted for the tension and compression specimens, respectively, the former of single shoulder design, the ends being gripped in split collets with a conical bearing surface. In the bend test, electropolished specimens measuring 0.080 by 0.25 by 1.25 in. were deformed at 78°K by four-point loading. The bending device had spans of 1 in. between the outer and 4 in between the inner fulcra; it was stressed between the compression anvils of the Instron machine at a constant deflection rate. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Polycrystals. Tension and Compression Tcsls. It is apparent from Fig. 1(a) that above 170°K fracture of Molybdenum X takes place at stresses equal to or greater than the compressive yield stress whereas

Jan 1, 1967

By C. P. Miller

In order to determine the usefulness of geochemical and biogeochemical prospecting for nickel, ten localities representing several types of nickel occurrences were selected as sites from which to collect plant and soil samples. This report covers the investigations in two of the areas. After a brief geologic description of the areas, the author presents details of the experimental tests and resulting data. Conclusions drawn from the studies led to several general guides for further prospecting. In a study of the usefulness of geochemical and biogeochemical prospecting for nickel made about three years ago, approximately ten localities, representing several different types of nickel occurrences, were sampled and about 1500 samples of plant and soil were collected. This report will cover briefly the data and results for two areas, and a summary of guides for prospecting. DESCRIPTION OF AREAS SAMPLED One locality is the Red Flats nickel prospect in Curry County, Ore., about six miles southeast of Goldbeach, and the other is the Little Rocky Creek prospect in Stillwater County, southcentral Montana, just southeast of the Benbow chromite mine. The Oregon area is a lateritic-type nickel deposit formed on a nickel-rich serpentinite peridotite complex, similar to the Josephine intrusion in southwestern Oregon. The Montana area is a nickel prospect in norite, peridotite, and related rocks of the Stillwater igneous complex. The Stillwater complex is a series of layered basic and ultrabasic rocks, with a layer of norite-gabbro at the base and a series of peridotites and gabbros above. The nickel in the Oregon deposit occurs in both the peridotite and the overlying soil. A deep lateritic soil is developed locally on the peridotite and serpentinite and constitutes the ore. The average nickel content of the lateritic soil is less than 1 pct, whereas the nickel content of the weathered peridotite is about 1 to 1.5 pct. The nickel occurs as garnierite (Mg, Fe, Ni, Mn)3 (OH)4 (SiA1)2O5 in the soil and in the olivine and pyroxene in the peridotite where it probably substitutes for Fe2+ or Mg2+ in the silicate lattices. Nickel is found in three distinct ways in the Still-water rocks: 1) it is in the olivine and pyroxene minerals in norite, harzburgite, etc.; 2) it occurs as widely disseminated grains of pentlandite-pyr-rhotite, which tend to be concentrated in the lower norite band; and 3) it occurs as discrete bodies of pentlandite-pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite which are localized in the norite zone, close to the contact with the underlying rocks. The nickel content of the norite is probably less than 1 pct, and the nickel content of the pods and lenses within the norite is about 1 pct. PROSPECTING APPROACH Although the areas are different geologically, the approach in prospecting them is fundamentally the same. The procedure is twofold: 1) a rapid reconnaissance survey to outline an area of high nickel content, and 2) a more detailed survey to outline zones of possible ore grade within the area of high nickel. The possible ore at Red Flats is concentrated in the lateritic soil, whereas at Little Rocky Creek it is in the sulfide pods. Both types are surrounded by an area of relatively high nickel content. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS Chemical analyses of nickel were made by a di-methylglyoxime colorimetric test, similar to the standard test for nickel, utilizing concentrated sul-furic acid for extraction. The lower limit of detection for nickel in soil by the method used was about 10 ppm and for nickel in plants about 5 ppm. The relative deviation was about 25 pct. SOIL PROSPECTING General Statements: A summary of the approximate average parts per million of nickel in soil, as compiled from the literature and from my study, is given in Table I. Selected references are given at the end of the paper. Few of the investigators reported the type of extraction or analysis, so the data given may not be strictly comparable to mine, which were made with a sulfuric acid extraction. Any nickel concentration greater than these average values might be considered anomalous, although each area must be studied in relation to the surrounding rocks. Method of Soil Sampling: The soil samples were taken in a zone from 1 in. to 1 ft below the humus layer, and within a 15-ft radius around a station.

Jan 1, 1961

By J. C. Melrose, W. R. Foster, J. G. Savins, E. R. Parish

Many differences can be imagined between gas-oil flow in which the gas is supplied at the face of the core and gas-oil flow in which the flowing gas was originally dissolved in the oil. If capillary pressure characteristics and flow requirements control gas saturation distribution, the gas would be expected to be located at preferred sites within the porous medium as determined by pore sizes. On the other hand, during solution gas drive the gas first appears as bubbles through a nuclea-tion process. Nothing in self-nucleation theory specifies at which sites the first bubbles should be formed. In all probability they will be randomly distributed throughout the porous medium. Furthermore, it is not at all certain that even at low rates of production the gas will redistribute itself after nucleation to the channels normally occupied by gas in simple gas flow. Stewart, et at, have shown that at least for some limestone samples, oil recoveries could not be predicted for all rates of production using any one set of relative gas and oil permeabilities. An important factor in controlling recoveries during solution gas drive was the rate of bubble formation, higher rates giving higher recoveries. Stewart, et al, attributed the increase in recovery to a better distribution of the gas phase in heterogeneous limestone samples than is obtained by simple external gas drive. Differences in recovery from these causes were not reported for sandstone cores. In the experiments to be reported here, oil recovery, pressure and producing GOR history were measured during solution gas drive for a 5-ft sandstone core. The results were compared with predictions from the Muskat method for computing solution gas-drive behavior using external gas-drive relative permeability. The effects of changing the rate of production and oil viscosity were studied. At high laboratory rates of average pressure decline, two observations were made which would not have been predicted by Muskat's depletion theory: (1) oil recovery increased with increasing rate of production for a given viscosity oil, and (2) oil recovery increased with increasing oil viscosity for a given high rate of production. Both of these observations are explained as consequences of diffusion control of gas saturations superimposed on the normal gas-oil flow requirements, Fur- thermore, discontinuous gas phase flow appears to be significant during solution gas drive. The laboratory tests were performed at rates of average pressure decline many times greater than the maximum possible rate of average pressure decline in an actual oil field. It is, therefore, not possible to draw any direct conclusions regarding the effect of rate on recovery for the solution gas-drive mechanism under actual field conditions. However, at the lower laboratory rates, recoveries were nearly independent of rate and could be predicted by the Muskat method, using external gas-drive relative permeability data. These results suggest that at normal oilfield rates the effect of rate on recovery for the solution gas-drive mechanism is negligible. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The core material for the pressure depletion studies was Bandera sandstone from an outcrop in the Mid-Continent. This sandstone was selected because of its low permeability (about 10 md), which would permit the development of substantial pressure gradients in the corn at moderate flow rates. The core was 5-ft long and 2-in. in diameter. Its properties are listed in Table 1. Relative gas-to-oil permeability ratios were measured by an external gas-drive method2. The results are shown for a short 2-in. core and for the 5-ft core in Fig. 8. Oils used in the pressure depletion experiments were kerosene and a highly refined white oil (standard white oil No. 3) with gas-free viscosities of 1.8 and 25 cp, respectively. The gas was a naturally occurring methane from Gough field, Inglewood, Calif. The oil viscosities, gas solubilities and formation volume factors are plotted as functions of pressure at 75°F in Figs. 1 and 2. Methane viscosities and compressibilities were obtained from the literature"'. A core mounting was required which could withstand up to 2,500 psi internal pressure. This was obtained by first encasing the core completely in a plastic resin (Scotch Cast, manufactured by Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Co.) The plastic covered core was then inserted into a steel pipe equipped with screw caps so that the plastic coating could be pressured from

By Horace Pops

Martensitic transformation has been studied during cooling and heating in ß-phase Cu-Zn alloys to which small additions have been made of Ni, Ag, Au, Cd, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, and Sb. The start and finish of the martensitic reaction and the variation of transformation temperature with third-element content were determined by electrical-resistivity measurements from alloys which had either constant zinc contents or constant values of electron concentration. All of the third elements, except nickel, lowered the transformation temperature if the results were plotted along the lines of constant zinc contents in each ternary system. A significant difference in the rate of lowering of the transformation temperature per atomic percent of the third element was observed for elements which had the same nominal valence. No systematic variation of transformation temperature with the valence of the third element was observed. It is suggested that the observed increase in transformation temperature for nickel-bearing alloys is due to the transfer of electrons from the conduction band of the alloy to virtual bound states. However, electron concentration is not the most important factor controlling the instability of the 0 phase. The transformation temperatures of the ternary alloys can be predicted from the following approxilnate expression: Ms (°K) = +3280 - 80 Zn + 8 Ni - 30 Ag - 12 Au - 140 Cd -90 Ga- 145 In - 80 Ge -175 Sn - 120 Si - 150 Sb MOST binary ß -phase alloys based upon the noble metals copper, silver, and gold are unstable at low temperatures and transform spontaneously by a martensitic reaction. This transformation has been studied recently in the ordered bcc ß'-phase Cu-Zn binary al1oys1,2 where the transformation temperature is below the room temperature and decreases with an increase in zinc content. It has been reported that the transformation temperatures can be raised above room temperature by small additions of a third element such as silicon3,5 or gallium,4,5 but no quantitative study has been made. The transformation temperature of different binary alloys can be altered by third-element additions. For example, it was shown that nickel and copper may have a large effect on the Ms temperature of CU-Al6 and Au-cd7 alloys. The present investigation was made to determine systematically the influence of various third elements on the martensite-transformation temperature of Cu-Zn ß-phase alloys. Since these alloys have an electronic origin,' alloy compositions were chosen so that the transformation temperatures could be determined at constant zinc contents or at constant values of electron concentration. I) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Ten ternary alloy systems were obtained by adding nickel, the noble metals silver and gold, and some B-subgroup elements to a Cu-Zn matrix. These are arranged according to their rows and columns in the Period Table as follows: Each ternary alloy was prepared by melting and casting weighed quantities of high-purity metals (99.99+ pct) in sealed quartz tubes under a partial pressure of helium to make a 4-g ingot. The molten alloys were shaken vigorously and then quenched in water. Since the weight loss was negligible, the compositions of the ingots after casting and annealing were assumed to be the same as the nominal compositions. The ingots were homogenized after casting in helium-filled Vycor tubes for 24 hr at temperatures between 750" and 810 C and quenched into brine. Metallographic examination revealed that all alloys were homogeneous, poly crystalline ß-phase alloys, and that the grain size was in the range 1 to 5 mm. Electrical-resistivity measurements were made to determine transformation temperatures of the ternary alloys during continuous cooling or heating. Transformation temperatures of the ternary alloys can be determined by electrical-resistivity measurements since the resistance of the martensitic phase is much higher than that of the 0' phase. The technique has been described previously in connection with a study of Au-Zn alloys.9 The reproducibility of transformation temperature was approximately ±6°C. II)RESULTS A hysteresis was always observed in electrical-resistivity curves and was usually less than about 12°C.

Jan 1, 1967

By H. Groeneveld, C. A. Connally, P. J. Hoenmans, J. J. Justen, W. L. Mason

A miscible displacement pilot using a slug of LPG driven by separator gas was conducted in the Cardiurn reservoir of the Pembina field. The injection pattern was a 10-acre, inverted, isolated five-spot. Upon completion of the LPG-gar phase, an experiment was conducted using a slug of water followed by gas. Calculated performance of the pilot is compared with actual performance. Equations are developed to calculate the distribution of LPG into zones of varying permeability, to estimate the progress of the flood at different times in the various zones and to estimate gas rates after breakthrough. The analysis indicates that permeability stratification was a dominant factor in controlling oil recovery and that oil was completely displaced from the swept pore volume. The results of the pilot indicated that miscible flooding is a practical means of pressure maintenance in this reservoir. The total recovery from the pilot area was good in spite of the early breakthrough of LPG. The effects of stratification were reduced by injecting a slug of water into the partially swept reservoir. INTRODUCTION The Pembina field,' located in Alberta, is the largest oil field in Canada and one of the largest in the North American continent. The reservoir is a stratigraphic trap producing from the Cardium sand. Neither bottom water nor free gas has been found. The recovery of oil by the natural depletion mechanism has been estimated at 12.5 per cent. Pressure maintenance studies of various areas have indicated that the recovery can be increased 21/2 times by water flooding, and a large area of the field is presently under water flood. However, reservoir studies of the North Pembina area indicated that miscible flooding might be competitive with water flooding. A pilot test was conducted to evaluate the performance of a miscible flood. A 10-acre, inverted, isolated, five-spot pattern was selected for the pilot. The pattern area was large enough to minimize wellbore fracturing effects and contained sufficient oil to provide significant working numbers. The performance of each of the four producers could be evaluated individually and compared. In the event of breakthrough in one direction, the effect would be isolated from the other producers. The use of a single injector minimized the volume of LPG required, and, because of the high mobility of gas, one well was sufficient to inject the necessary daily volume to replace the high rate of production. With four producers, the test could be completed in time for results to be evaluated, additional engineering studies to be made and a unit to be formed before the reservoir pressure in the North Pembina area declined below the bubble point. The pilot was located in an area developed on staggered, 80-acre spacing. The injection well was drilled at a regular location, while the four producers were drilled 467-ft north, east, south and west of the injector. Each quadrant and its associated producer were identified according to their direction from the injector— that is, north, east, south or west. The eight surrounding producers on 80-acre spacing were shut in to isolate the pilot area and provide for reservoir pressure observation. The pilot wells were completed using permanent-type completion techniques. After coring, casing was run through the pay section and cemented. Inside 51/2-in. casing, 2 1/2-in. tubing was hung. The wells were perforated opposite the Upper Cardium sand and lightly fractured. Fracturing volumes, rates and pressures were low to minimize the extent of the fractures. The fracturing treatments average 1,000 lb of 20-40 mesh sand in 700 gal of a low fluid-loss sand-carrying agent. Feed rates and wellhead fracturing pressures averaged 5.5 bbl/min at 2,535 psig, respectively. After fracturing, the productivity index was measured in each of the five pilot wells. The average PI of the four producers was 0.41 BOPD/psig drawdown. The measured PI'S were approximately the same as PI'S calculated from core analysis data, indicating that the fracturing treatments were just sufficient to overcome

By M. S. Rashid, C. J. Altstetter

Allotropic transformations in cerium have been studied by dilatometric, resistometric, X-ray diffraction, and metallographic techniques. The dilatometric study indicated that, on cooling below O°C, the high-temperature fcc phase, y, transforms partly to the hexagonal phase, ß, and, on further cooling, to the collapsed fcc phase, a. The amount of $ phase present at room temperature is increased by repeated cycling through the a-y transformation. It has been shown metallograPhically that the y-ß transformation has many characteristics of a martensitic transformation. In contrast to the y-ß transformation the ?-a transformation does not give the manifestation of a shear transformation. Small cellular ? domains of random shape and size collapse to a in a short time with no apparent coordination with neighboring domains. The considerable confusion in the literature over the existence of more than one high-temperature fcc phase is discussed. Two such phases have been reported in the literature and an attempt is made in this study to clarify the situation. Twelve fcc and two hcp structures have been shown to be easily reproduced or eliminated. It is proposed that the two "additional" allotropes reported in the literature and fourteen of the phases detected here are not allotropes of cerium but are due to contamination. CERIUM exists in several allotropic forms, but there is some disagreement over what the forms are. Furthermore, the conditions favoring the presence of a particular allotrope and the nature of the transformations from one form to another are uncertain. The objectives of this research were 1) to ascertain the allotropic forms of cerium, 2) to establish the conditions under which the allotropes exist, 3) to study the effects of annealing and thermal cycling on the allotropic transformations, and 4) to study the transformation mechanisms. Dilatometric, resistometric, metallographic, and X-ray diffraction techniques were employed. The form of cerium commonly found at room temperature is fcc and is designated ?. A complex hexagonal phase, 8, forms when y is cooled to slightly below room temperature. At still lower temperatures the y fcc structure transforms to an fcc form with a much smaller lattice parameter, termed a cerium. A bcc form, 6, which exists just below the melting point (800°C), will not be considered further in this work. There is a substantial body of experimental evidence (reviewed by Gschneidnerl) which favors the acceptance of these four allotropes, though some investigators have tried unsuccessfully to observe the ß hexagonal form.'-' There is disagreement, however, over the phase-transformation temperatures, due, in part, to broad hysteresis and overlapping of the transformations between the a, ß, and ? forms. The transformations are also sensitive to prior thermal and mechanical treatment. The differing purity of cerium used by different investigators is undoubtedly a factor. Cerium is difficult to separate from other elements and is quite reactive, igniting spontaneously when it is filed in air. The highest purity of cerium to date is reported to contain several hundred parts per million by weight of impurities, and early investigations were carried out on cerium containing several percent of impurities. There have been reports of more than one fcc allotrope at room temperature. Gschneidner, Elliott, and McDonald5 obtained diffraction patterns of an fcc phase with a lattice parameter about 1 pct less than that of the ? phase, instead of the y phase, on slowly cooling cerium filings from 23° to -198°C and warming them back to room temperature. However, when the sample was heated to 447°C and cooled to room temperature it consisted of only the ? phase. They have designated this new fcc phase "a-? intermediate", and say it is quite sensitive to impurities. After prolonged high-temperature treatment of a powder specimen, Weiner and Raynor2 obtained a diffraction pattern of an fcc phase of lattice parameter about 1 pct less than the ? phase. This they called the y' phase. It could not be reconverted to the y phase and is claimed to be different from the a-? intermediate phase.5,6 Dialer and Rothe3 reported two fcc phases* after cycling their powder specimens between room temperature and -192°C. Gschneidner, Elliott, and McDonald5 suggested that one of the fcc structures obtained by Dialer and Rothe was equivalent to their "a-? intermediate" phase. Table I presents some pertinent data on the proposed allotropes. For the ?(fcc)-ß(hexagonal) transformation

Jan 1, 1967

By Klaus Schwerdtfeger

Activities of lead in Pt-Pb and Pd-Pb melts in the temperature range of 800° to 1200°C have been detev-mined from electromotive-. force measurements 202th the cells Both systems display strong negative deviations from Raoult's law. The data obtained with cell [1] were combined with available data on the activity of PbO in silica-satuvaterl PbO-SbO2 melts to calculate the standard free cnergy of formation 01- liquid PbO. FREE energies of formation of oxides and activities of components in metal and oxide melts can be determined with galvanic cells consisting of a metal phase, an electrolyte containing the oxide of one of the components of the metal phase, and an oxygen electrode. This technique has been used previously to measure the standard free energy of formation of solid sio2, 1 and activities in Fe-si, CO-si,2 Ni-Si,2 and CaO-P2O5 3 melts. The present paper reports activities in Pt-Pb and Pd-Pb melts as measured with the same experimental technique. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD General Considerations. The following cells were used: Pbl (PbO-SiO2)liquid, SiO2 Pt-Pb 1 (PbO-SiOz)liquid, SiO2solidO2 [2] Pd-Pb (PbO-SiOz)liquid, SiO2solid O2 [3] Liquid alloy and' oxide melt were contained together in a silica glass crucible of essentially the same design as described previously.1'2 The PbO-SiO2 melts are ionic conductors.' During the experiment, the silica glass crystalizes in a layer adjacent to the electrolyte. The electrolyte equilibrates with solid silica and hence attains the composition of the Si02-liquidus curve in the system PbO-SiO2 at any particular temperature. Molybdenum wires were used to establish contact with the liquid metal. The oxygen electrode, which reaches the surface of the PbO-SiO, electrolyte from above, consists of a platinum wire inserted into a ceramic tube and provided with a 2-mm-diam platinum bead at its end. Gas of known oxygen partial pressure (pure oxygen of 1 atm: air, or N2 with 1.04 pct 0,) is blown through the ceramic tube onto the surface of the electrolyte. The cell reaction is Pb (metal) + 1/2O2 (gas) = PbO (electrolyte) [4] No oxidation of platinum or palladium ("displacement reaction") occurs. This is to be expected from the noble character of platinum and palladium, but was also shown experimentally, as described in the next section. The galvanic electromotive force of the cell is given by where AG is the change in free energy for Reaction [4], E(=2) is the number of electrical equivalents necessary to form 1 mole of PbO, and F is the Faraday constant. Formula [5] is valid only if no junction potential exists within the electrolyte. Junction potentials occur only when the compositions of the electrolyte are markedly different at the electrodes. Such differences are negligible in the PbO-SiO, electrolyte, as shown in the next section. Since molybdenum contact leads are used, appropriate corrections were made on the measured electromotive forces to account for the thermoelectric effect of the Mo-Pt couple. The thermoelec-tromotive forces were measured separately with a Mo-Pt couple, and were found to vary linearly from 19 mv at 740°C to 40 mv at 1310°C with molybdenum being positive and platinum negative (cold junction at 25°C). Extrapolation of these values to higher temperatures yields values which are in satisfactory agreement with those obtained previously in the temperature range 1440° to 1630°c.1,2 The change in free energy for Reaction [4] is expressed as where chemical potentials of the species. The value of constant for a given temperature because the slag composition is fixed. Inserting [6] into [5] and using appropriate expressions for upb and uO2 the relation

Jan 1, 1967

By Kenric C. Owen

INTRODUCTION Situated 23 miles east of Pretoria the Premier Mine started diamond production in 1903. Two years later it produced the largest diamond yet discovered, the 3 106 carat Cullinan stone. For the period to 1932 when the mine was closed down due to economic circumstances, open cast mining was practised using inclined rope haulage traction and by this time had produced 48.5 million carats of predominantly industrial quality diamonds from 148 million tons of ore. In 1945 it was decided to re-open the mine using underground mining methods. A system using long hole benching was devised (Hodgson and Sewel 1960). This system was later modified but still forms the basis for approximately fifty percent of production. Following the successful introduction of block caving on associated diamond mines in the Kimberley area (Gallagher and Loftus 1960) this mining method was introduced to the Premier Mine in the late 60's and now accounts for nearly 50% of production. This paper will discuss block caving at Premier Mine in the light of our experience and discussion will be directed to the main geological and structural features of the orebody and host rocks and the related constraints imposed on the mining methods. Reference is made to the long hole benching mining method for comparative purposes. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF OPERATIONS The ore from the block caving and bench mining areas gravitates via ore passes to a twin haulage, 500m below surface. Electric 13 tonne locomotives, each hauling a train of 10 Granby type cars, deliver the ore to two 42" x 48" (1.06m x 1.22m) jaw crushers. The ore is reduced in size to minus 0.15m before being hoisted to the treatment plant on surface. Hoisting is done with 12.5 tonne bottom discharge skips in a five compartment rectangular shaft using two 3 240 H.P. semi automatic Ward Leonard winders. A small single drum service winder operates in the other compartment. Men and materials travel in a separate shaft in a 5,4m x 2,8m cage operated by a Koepi winder. These two shafts are also the main intake airways to the mine. The two main extraction fans capable of 250 m3/s at 3,2 kPa are situated on surface and are connected to the underground workings by an incline and a network of air passes and return airways. GEOLOGY Although there are numerous occurrences of kimberlite bodies in the district, the Premier Mine kimberlite pipe is the only economic orebody. It is roughly oval in shape with surface dimensions of 900m on the long axis and 450monthe short axis. The surface area is 320 000 m2. The kimberlite has intruded a massive body of felsite and norite which is intersected by a number of faults. The contact between the kimberlite and host rock is clear cut and dips inward at an average angle of 80°. Cutting across the pipe and the country rock is a 75 metre thick gabbro sill, the top of which intersects the pipe below the 347m level and dips at 15' to the north west. The kimberlite has been metamorphosed a distance of some 20m both above and below the sill contacts. Age measurements on biotite from the gabbro date the sill as 1 115 million years, thereby providing a minimum age of the pipe. (Pre Cambrian). All other pipes in South Africa are of Cretaceous age (60 million years). A simplified geological plan and section of the Premier Mine orebody is shown in Figure 1. It is thought that the kimberlite intruded in at least three distinct phases. The kimberlites of these different phases can be distinguished most easily by their characteristic colour. BROWN KIMBERLITE. This is the oldest kimberlite and forms a crescent shape in plan on the south eastern side of the pipe. In depth it increases in relative area. Although the brown kimberlite carries the highest diamond grade in terms of carats per ton all the various kimberlites in the Premier pipe are economic to mine.

Jan 1, 1981

By R. F. Hehemann, D. J. Cometto, G. L. Houze

The w transformation in the Zr-Nb system was studied using X-ray diffraction, dilatometric, re-sistornetric, hardness, and metallographic techniques. w forms in a diffusionless, completely reaersible manner on quenching and in a diffusion-controlled manner- on aging. The temperature at which w begins to form on quenching was determined as a Junction of composition and was found to decrease with increasing solute content. w formed bv aging establishes a metastable equilibrium with an enriched ß phase. The ß/w + ß transus has been determined for this metastable equilibrium and employed to rationalize retrogression and reversion phenomena observed in these alloys. The decomposition mechanism is discussed in terms of a gradual or continuous transformation from ß to the w state. BETA- stabilizing alloying elements lower the MS temperature of the martensitic bcc (ß) to hcp (a') transformation in zirconium and titanium alloys. In certain titanium alloys, a lower symmetry modification of the martensitic structure, termed (a"), also has been reported.1,2 These martensitic transformations are suppressed when the amount of the ß-stabilizing element exceeds a critical level. However, the high-temperature ß phase cannot be quenched to room temperature without change. At alloy contents just above the critical level, |ß trans-forms to the w phase when cooled rapidly.3-6 The amount of w in quenched alloys is reduced by increasing alloy content, and this phase virtually disappears above a critical composition.5 In addition to the transformation during cooling, w also can be formed by aging ß at temperatures below approximately 500°C, and significant alloy enrichment of retained 13 accompanies the isothermal transformation.1-8 The structure of LC is closely related to that of the ß from which it forms.9-15 The bcc (ß) lattice can be generated using a hexagonal cell with three atoms located at (000) and ±(2/3, 1/3, 1/3). This cell has an axial ratio of 0.612 and is oriented with respect to the cubic cell such that (0001)H (111)C and [1120]H [101]C. Consequently, there are four possible orientations of the hexagonal cell, associated with the four (111) planes of the bee lattice. Formally w can be obtained from 0 by allowing the two atoms at the ±(2/3, 1/3, 1/3) positions to approach the coordinates ±(2/3, 1/3, 1/2) and there are four equally probable orientations of w for each 0 grain. In titanium alloys w retains the cubic axial ratio of 0.612" and hence also can be indexed as triply cubic, but this is not the case for aged Zr-Nb alloys where w is clearly hexagonal with an axial ratio of 0.622." The lattice parameters and atomic positions of w depend on thermal history and alloy content. The atomic positions (000), ±(2/3, 1/3, 1/2) provide reasonable agreement between calculated and observed diffracted intensities for w in the fully aged condition.10,14 In the quenched condition, on the other hand, the atoms appear to be displaced from the central plane12,13,15 and assume positions ±(2/3, 1/3, Z = 0.42-0.48) rather than ±(2/3, 1/3, 1/2). This results in a structure with trigonal rather than hexagonal symmetry. The readily detectable parameter and axial-ratio changes of w in Zr-Nb alloys make this system especially attractive for studying the structural changes that occur in the formation and aging of w. Particular attention in this investigation has been directed to the relationship between the structure of w in the quenched and aged conditions, and to certain aspects of the reaction kinetics. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE Zr-5, 12, 17.5, and 25 pct Nb alloys were prepared by a double arc-melting practice, encased in stainless-steel cans and hot-rolled to 1/8-in.-thick sheet.* Charged weights have been employed for the niobium contents and interstitial analyses are reported in Table I. Dilatometric, X-ray diffraction (filtered CuK, and MoK, radiation), metallographic, and hardness techniques have been employed to follow the transformations during isothermal and quench-aging heat treatments. In quenched specimens, the electrical resistivity also was studied. Betatizing was conducted for 1 hr at 900°C. With the exception of the isothermal dilatometric studies, samples were

Jan 1, 1965

By C. J. Frosch, J. A. May, H. G. White, C. D. Thurmond

Gallium phosphide epitaxial layers were grown from the vapor phase on undoped single-crystal galliurn arsenide substrates in silica tubes by an open-tube wet-hydrogen process. The epitaxial layers were grown over a range of water pressures at three substrate temperatures. Excess donor concentrations were determined by surface barvier capacitance measurelrzents without removing the layers from the substrates. The excess dmlor concentration, ND-NA, is fo~ind to vary approxilnately inversely with the pressure of water added to the hydrogen carrier gas. This is the relationship that would be expected for singly ionized silicon donors on gallium sites in extrinsic galliunz phosphide, with the silicon coming from the SiO generated by the reaction of hydrogen with the silica tube. An increase in the partial pressure of water in the hydrogen stream decreases the SiO pressure. The results indicate that ni, the intrinsic hole and electrmt concentration for gallium phosphide at the three substrate temperatures, is smaller than the concentration estimated from available data for the density of states effective masses and the energy gap. Mass-spectrographic measurements confirm that the dono?, introduced into gallium phosphide is silicon. The equilibrium concentrations of silicon in vapor-flown gallium Phosphide have been estimated from available thernzodynamic information that includes the solubility measurements of silicon in gallium phosphide in equilibrium with a gallium-rich liquid phase. Satisfactory agreement with the measured silicon concentrations is obtained. FROSCH1 has described an open-tube process for growing single-crystal Gap from the vapor phase by a GazO transport mechanism. The method depends upon the reaction of H20 in an H2 carrier gas with a heated source of polycrystalline Gap which provides the necessary vapor species. When the temperature of these vapor species is lowered, super saturation occurs and single-crystal Gap will deposit on a suitable substrate. Unintentionally doped single crystals of Gap grown by the wet H2 process in silica tubes are n type. Evidence is presented to show that the donor introduced is silicon, and that a qua si-equilibrium model accounts for the inverse dependence of the donor concentration on the water partial pressure and predicts the magnitude of the donor concentrations. Ainslie et al. experimentally showed a similar inverse relationship between the carrier density and oxygen pressure for GaAs. Emission-spectrographic analyses showed a decrease in the silicon concentration with increasing oxygen overpressure for GaAs. Cochran and Foster suggested the theoretical possibility of suppressing silicon contamination by using Ga20 generated by the reaction of gallium with water vapor. 1) EXPERIMENTAL The apparatus and procedures are essentially the same as those described by Frosch.' The apparatus consists of a 25-mm-ID SiO2 tube extending through a controlled high-temperature flat zone for the location of the polycrystalline Gap source and a downstream temperature gradient falling at a rate of about 14°C per cm. The latter provides the region of super saturation for the location of the single-crystal substrate. The partial pressure of water in the inflowing hydrogen stream, pA2, O was controlled by mixing me-tered proportions of dry H2 with H2 saturated with H2O vapor at 0°C. The total gas flows were about 200 cu cm per min in all experiments. The Gap sources were prepared by pulverizing boat-grown polycrystalline ingots to pass a 20-mesh sieve. The substrates were cut from an undoped single-crystal boat-grown GaAs ingot purchased from Monsanto. This ingot had a carrier concentration of about 1015 atoms per cu cm, a resistivity of about 5 ohm-cm, and a mobility of about 5000 sq cm per v sec at 25°C. Substrates with dimensions of 1 by 1 by 5 x lo-' cm were employed. The growth faces were chemically polished (111) arsenic faces. Epitaxial layers, at least 7.5 x 10-3 cm thick, were grown,. This required from 1 to 24 hr depending upon the Pii2Q values and the temperatures. In all of the runs, the source temperatures were 50°C higher than the substrate temperatures. Samples were prepared

Jan 1, 1968

By W. A. Tiller

The conventional techniques1 for determining the liquidus and solidus surfaces of an alloy system containing more than two components are extremely tedious to use and do not provide a complete picture of the equilibrium relations between solid and liquid alloys. These techniques are unable to yield "tie-line" information concerning solid and liquid phase equilibrium, a very important parameter in the solidification description of the liquid alloy and a very necessary parameter in the preparation of "zone-levelled" alloy crystals. The tie-line in a polycomponent system is analogous to the partition coefficient, k, in a binary system, it gives the composition of the solid, Cs, in equilibrium with a liquid of composition CL. That is, CS = kCL, where CL = [CO, c1,...Cn] denotes the concentrations of the n + 1 constituents, and k = [ko, kb ,...kon] denotes the gross partition coefficient for the elements between the two phases; thus, k is the tie-line in this system. To provide complete information concerning the two-phase equilibrium in a polycomponent system it is necessary to know both the liquidus surface and the gross partition coefficient. From these two the solidus surface is obtainable. The conventional techniques are unable to provide this information in other than a binary system so we must look elsewhere. In recent years considerable insight has been gained into the correct description of the liquid-solid transformation, 2,3 and controlled solidification experiments may now be designed to both facilitate and enhance equilibrium diagram studies. In the present paper consideration is given to two methods for obtaining the liquidus surface and the tie-lines in polycomponent systems. The methods to be described below deal with the solidification of an n + 1 constituent liquid alloy of initial composition [co, Co ,...Con], where the superscripts refer to the elements present and the Oth element is considered as the solvent in which the n solutes are dissolved. The general assumptions made in the treatment are the following: (i) the solid and the liquid at their interface are in equilibrium during the growth of the solid phase, (ii) there is no diffusion in the solid phase, and (iii) the liquid phase is completely mixed and is therefore homogeneous in concentration. METHOD I In this section a general experimental method will be described which, in principle, is capable of giving an exact description of the liquidus surface and tie-lines. Consider the unidirectional solidification of the liquid alloy specimens L cm in length (freezing either horizontally or vertically). Allow the sample to be frozen very slowly from one end, as indicated in Fig. 1, with complete mixing in the liquid, and then analyze the solid bar to determine its chemical constitution as a function of position, x, along the bar. Let Fig. 2 represent a possible distribution of the ith constituent along the bar. At the point x' the concentration of the ith constituent is C1/5(x'), and the average concentration of the rest of the bar between x' and L is given by C:(X' - L) where [ A(x) c1s(x)dx c1/s(x'-L) = f A(x) dx x * and A(X) is the cross-sectional area at x. In a similar manner. all the Cf(x' - L) may be determined. Thus, the gross artition coefficient k for liquid of composition [Cs(x - L),...Cs(X' - L)] is given by -ko= CUs')/Cos(x' - L)" k0 = csn{x')/cs(x'- L) During the freezing of a charge of length L, the liquid composition may vary over a wide segment of the phase diagram and the gross partition coefficient over this segment of the phase diagram may be determined from one, bar. Fig. 3 illustrates the magnitude of Cs(g)/C,' as a function of the fraction g of the bar which has Solidified.2 We can see that the concentration in the bar will vary over a range of about 15 wt pct for C,' = 10 wt pct and k0 = 0.5. It appears that 4 or 5 specimens would be adequate to study a simple binary eutectic phase diagram.

Jan 1, 1960

By C. B. Daellenbach, T. D. Tiemann

The prevention of quartz flotation by chelation of activating ions with the tetrasodium salt of EDTA in oleic acid flotation was investigated using a small vacuum flotation cell. It was found that flotation of quartz could be entirely suppressed in the presence of activating ions during complete flotation of hematite. It was further shown that the concentration of activating ions liberated from Wisconsin Gogebic taconite is sufficient to float quartz in an oleic acid system. Large tonnages of low grade siliceous iron ores occur on the iron ranges of the Lake Superior district. Although the lower grade nonmagnetic types are currently not of economic importance, they constitute a large future potential source of iron and steel, and hence have been the subject for extensive research on their beneficiation. TACONITES Of particular interest to the Dept. of Minerals and Metals Engineering at the University of Wisconsin have been the low grade nonmagnetic taconites of the Wisconsin Gogebic Range. These occur as five members of the iron formation and have been described in detail elsewhere.' Essentially they consist of an intimate mixture of hematite, goethite and quartz, with minor amounts of siderite, magnetite, iron containing silicates, and manganese minerals. A typical mean analysis based on the Bureau of Mines analyses' is: SiO2-52.50%, Fe2O3-43.40%, (Fe-30.38%), A12O3-1.15%, P2O5-0.07%, Mn2O3-0.29%, CaO-0.07%, (S-0.03%), Loss on ignition-2.00%. The quartz in these ores is of a microcrystalline variety,2 and so intimately associated with the iron oxide minerals that extremely fine grinding, in the order of minus 325 mesh, is required for liberation. During grinding and subsequent flotation, the concentration of quartz activating ions in the pulp becomes sufficiently high to activate quartz which floats along with the iron minerals in the presence of oleic acid. cook3 and co-workers concluded that oxidized iron ores released appreciable quantities of quartz-activating ions in water pulps. This is shown to be true in the present investigation. As a matter of fact, application of this phenomenon, as well as the intentional addition of activating calcium ions, is made use of in the an ionic flotation of silica from the iron oxide minerals.4,5 In view of the above, it becomes almost impossible to effect a sharp separation of quartz in the oleic acid flotation of the iron oxide minerals from these taconites, even with satisfactory liberation. This fact led to the current investigation to find a means of linking the activating ions with a chelating agent. The aim was to establish basic data for the quartz-water-oleic acid system which might not only be applicable to iron ores, but also to the flotation of other siliceous ores as well. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Vacuum Flotation Cell: The vacuum flotation used in this investigation is similar to that used by previous investigators.6,7,8 The cell consisted of a 100 ml graduated cylinder with the lip removed. Vacuum from a water aspirator was applied to the cell through a trap; suitable tubing, and a rubber stopper inserted in the top of the cell. Constant absolute pressure was maintained by means of a manometer connected to the trap with a tee. Flotation: The required amount of activating ion solution was pipetted into a beaker. This was then diluted to 99.0 ml with water having a pH below that desired for the test, or so adjusted with HC1. After addition of 1.0 ml of oleic acid solution (2.0 mg oleic acid per ml), the pH was readjusted to the desired value with NaOH, and the entire solution transferred to the cell containing 1.5 gm of quartz. After vigorously agitating the cell and its contents for 2 min, the vacuum was applied to the cell and the estimated degree of flotation observed for a 3-min period. Activating ions studied included Ca++, Mg++, Al+++, and Fe+ + + added as chloride solutions. In addition,

Jan 1, 1964