Search Documents

By R. V. Lukes, H. W. Scheeline

Knowledge of a large number of the physical properties of the hydrocarbons is needed in the calculations and studies of the production engineer. Since experimental data on these properties of the individual hydrocarbons and their mixtures are available in only a relatively few cases, the use of generalized correlations has developed rapidly in the last decade. The generalized correlations of pressure, volume and temperature,' enthalpy2 and vapor-liquid equilibria13 on the basis of reduced temperatures and pressures, are outstanding examples of this development. These correlations are of particular value to the production engineer interested in the flow of oil and gas, since they can be used to estimate the conditions under which segregation of phase occurs as well as the composition, density, and relative amounts of the phases. The technique of using the correlations for such estimations has been published by several authors4 and will not be considered in this paper. A considerable number of data have been obtained to check the generalized pressure-volume-temperature correlations, and these data indicate that such relations hold for the hydrocarbons from methane to heptane. The accuracy is in general sufficient for most engineering pressure-volume-temperature calculations. However, the generalized correlations of enthalpy and vapor-liquid equilibria have in general been developed from the pressure-volume-temperature correlations by thermodynamic calculations and only a relatively few experimental data are available to check these calculated values. The calculations from pressure, volume and temperature are likely to lead to large errors in the calculated enthalpy and vapor-liquid equilibria. Thus, in the calculations of enthalpies, slopes of the pressure-volume-temperature data are employed, and determining these slopes can greatly amplify small errors in the original data. In the vapor-liquid equilibria calculations it is necessary to have the pressure-volume-temperature relations of the mixture, and the latter propertics are much more questionable than those of pure components, particularly in the critical region. A considerable number of experimental data are

Jan 1, 1939

By W. Tovote

THIS paper is based upon 12 years' experience in the Southwest, including three years that were spent in constant traveling as examining engineer for the Phelps-Dodge Corporation. The material was gathered during rather extensive work in Bisbee, Clifton-Morenci, Globe, and Tombstone, and also on short and rapid trips into most of the mining camps and prospect fields of New Mexico, Arizona, the desert country of California, and as much of Sonora as was safe at the time. My methods of observation and my deductions are not put forward as new or scientific; they are simply rough field methods, based upon short notes, rough sketches, and largely upon memory, which I have found useful for coordinating geological data for the purpose of passing quick judgment on mining possibilities in certain districts exhibiting uniform characteristics. The opportunities for observation have been better these last few years than ever before, clue to the unprecedented activity in mining, which has caused the reopening of hundreds of old mines and the starting of even more numerous prospects all over the mining States. POSSIBLE SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION By Geological Provinces There are a number of well defined geological provinces in the territory under discussion, and a study of their individual features is of interest. The following are a few of those that axe most striking in their uniformity. 1. The "Desert province," extending roughly from. Wickenburg, Ariz., to and beyond Barstow, Cal. In its north-south extent it reaches up to the Colorado River and clown into Sonora, but overlaps other provinces. It is characterized by a worn-down basement of schistose and granitic rocks, on which rest remnants of Paleozoic and pre-Paleozoic sediments, including very old limestones. The sediments are disrupted and contorted. Alteration in the mineralized areas is very prominent, especially in the schists and limestones. Cenozoic volcanic rocks, principally of semi-basic composition, have been intruded into this complex and sometimes cover it as lava flows.

Jan 10, 1918

By R. V. Lukes, H. W. Scheeline

Knowledge of a large number of the physical properties of the hydrocarbons is needed in the calculations and studies of the production engineer. Since experimental data on these properties of the individual hydrocarbons and their mixtures are available in only a relatively few cases, the use of generalized correlations has developed rapidly in the last decade. The generalized correlations of pressure, volume and temperature,' enthalpy2 and vapor-liquid equilibria13 on the basis of reduced temperatures and pressures, are outstanding examples of this development. These correlations are of particular value to the production engineer interested in the flow of oil and gas, since they can be used to estimate the conditions under which segregation of phase occurs as well as the composition, density, and relative amounts of the phases. The technique of using the correlations for such estimations has been published by several authors4 and will not be considered in this paper. A considerable number of data have been obtained to check the generalized pressure-volume-temperature correlations, and these data indicate that such relations hold for the hydrocarbons from methane to heptane. The accuracy is in general sufficient for most engineering pressure-volume-temperature calculations. However, the generalized correlations of enthalpy and vapor-liquid equilibria have in general been developed from the pressure-volume-temperature correlations by thermodynamic calculations and only a relatively few experimental data are available to check these calculated values. The calculations from pressure, volume and temperature are likely to lead to large errors in the calculated enthalpy and vapor-liquid equilibria. Thus, in the calculations of enthalpies, slopes of the pressure-volume-temperature data are employed, and determining these slopes can greatly amplify small errors in the original data. In the vapor-liquid equilibria calculations it is necessary to have the pressure-volume-temperature relations of the mixture, and the latter propertics are much more questionable than those of pure components, particularly in the critical region. A considerable number of experimental data are

Jan 1, 1939

By Joseph D. McClung, L. G. Austin

INTRODUCTION Run-of-mine (ROM) coal generally falls into two major groups, that from underground mining (continuous mining machines) and that from strip mining. Continuous miners produce a finer product and strip mining a coarser product that is crushed to produce the desired size. Further size reduction depends on the proposed use or uses for the coal. For example, for pulverized coal power plants as a rough general rule, the coal is ground or pulverized to 80% less than 200 mesh (0.075 mrn) before it is blown into the boiler furnace as a coal-air suspension. For solvent-refined coal processes, the desired size is about <30 mesh ( <0.60 mm) ; in fluidized bed uses, the coal is typically < in. ( < 1.6 mm); for Lurgi pressure gasifiers, the desired size is 1-2 1/2 in. (25-63 mm). Coal preparation plants typically work with a coarse size fraction of 6x1 1/4 in. (15Ox32mm). It seems probable that the next decades will see much wider application of coal cleaning before use and that the stages of crushing and pulverization from ROM coal to end use will be integrated with coal cleaning processes. Since different cleaning processes work better with different ranges of coal size and the degree of cleaning possible is inti-

Jan 1, 1979

By H. I-Lieh Huang, O. D. Sherby, J. E. Dorn

RECENT investigations1-4 have suggested that the total plastic strain, C, for high temperature creep under a given stress can be correlated by means of a temperature-compensated time, te- where t is the duration of test, e is the base of natural logarithms, aH is the activation energy for creep, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. A typical set of data on which this deduction was based is given in Fig. la. Inasmuch as the e-in t curves for the various temperatures are identical except for their displacement along the In t axis where f and are appropriate functions. If the increase in creep rate with an increase in temperature is exclusively ascribable to a single process involv- ing thermal activation, (T) should equal RT and therefore it = constant [2] where ?= te Assuming the validity of this relationship, ? = ?2 at the same strain, or where the subscripts refer to two alternate test conditions.

Jan 1, 1957

By John Norton

IN spite of the very general employment of nitride hardening, there is still considerable doubt as to the real nature of the mechanism involved. Experience has shown that the addition of small amounts of hardening elements to iron or steel results in a wide variety of desirable properties in a nitrided case. Perhaps the foremost of these elements is aluminum and in this investigation an attempt has been made to study the behavior of aluminum during the hardening process. It is believed that the establishment of a complete atomic picture of the metal at various stages of the process will indicate the relationships between the several kinds of atoms and their individual influences on the physical properties in a clear and direct fashion. A consideration of the problem suggests a surprising similarity between the mechanisms of nitride hardening and of age-hardening. It is now generally understood that age-hardening may take place by one of two distinct processes, the first involving the precipitation of a finely dispersed phase and the other being concerned with the modifica-tion of an existing phase. Following much the same line of reasoning, two theories of nitride hardening have been suggested. The first expla-nation, which has been generally discussed, particularly by Fry,1 states in brief that the presence of aluminum causes the precipitation of alumi-num nitride during nitriding and that this finely dispersed phase is the primary cause of hardening. The second explanation, which has not been published but which has been freely discussed by those interested in the problem, postulates the substitution of aluminum atoms for certain of the iron atoms in the several iron-nitrogen phases in the same manner that the substitutional iron-aluminum solid solution is formed. The marked increase in hardness, as compared with the aluminum-free

Jan 1, 1934

By Albert F. Hill

The manufacture of structural shapes in steel of uniform quality, which shall command the full confidence of the engineer, is a problem in practical metallurgy which is beginning to attract much attention in this country. The progress of the past fern years in the improvement of plant and processes has placed it within the power of the steel-maker to supply a material of such chemical composition as will meet the requirements; but this solves only in part the difficulties of the constractor. It is well understood that the influence of shop manipulations is a most decisive one upon the mechanical properties of the finished product; in many cases so great, in fact, as to cause an entire transformation in the character of the material, and to render it unfit for the service for which it was intended. On the other hand, mechanical treatment is frequently resorted to as an efficient corrective of certain undesirable properties, which may be due either to chemical composition or previous manipulation. This understood and accepted, it is evident that careful investigation of the effects of mechanical treatment is fully as necessary to the successful use of steel in engineering structures, as the investigation of the influence exerted by its chemical composition. All structural material has to undergo more or less mechanical treatment, such as shearing, punching, upsetting, etc. Each of these operations produces effects which are far more marked and decisive in steel than they are in iron, and means must therefore be adopted to counteract, or at least to modify, these effects before the material is permitted to enter the structure. The fact that both shearing and punching affect the tenacity and elasticity of steel has long been recognized; bat, through more recent investigations, it has been established that these effects are purely local, and are therefore susceptible of correction by other and simpler means than annealing. The importance of this discovery to the use of steel in structures is very great. The impracticability of

Jan 1, 1883

By L. Casagrande, C. O. Brawner, D. L. Pentz, B. Kennedy, E. Hoek, H. Q. Golder, K. Barron

H. L. HAMMERSLEY, B. C. Dept. of Mines. I would like to ask Mr. Brawner if the direction that he measured in the boreholes with the camera was referenced to magnetic north? MR. BRAWNER. Yes, it was. However, there is one problem that you may encounter if the ore body is magnetic; the borehole compass will give erroneous results. Three procedures are available to overcome this. The first one involves the use of a gyro compass instead of a magnetic compass. The second technique developed by Christiansen in Salt Lake City, is to orient the core with the use of scribing knives. The third method is to remove the compass needle and place a steel ball in the compass case. The hole must be drilled at a slight angle off the vertical. The location of the steel ball, which will roll to the underside of the hole is photographed. A borehole directional survey is then made, from which the bearing of the steel ball relative to the axis of the compass can be determined. The joint orientation is then related to this bearing at all depths. J. ROBINSON, B. C. Dept. of Mines. It was stated this morning that there have been some recent developments that give us the ability to drill horizontal drainage holes and install drainage pipes more cheaply than in the past. Would Mr. Brawner tell us some of the new developments and methods of installing these horizontal drain holes? MR. BRAWNER There are two zones in which you may be concerned about installing drains; the first is in the overburden soil, the second is in the rock. Each area requires a different installation method. If the rock is fairly massive and the holes will remain open, the simplest procedure is to use standard air track equipment or a percussion drill. At one of the mines in the Highland Valley, drains up to 300 ft. long have been installed with a percussion drill at a rate of one drain per day. The costs were in the order of $2.30 and $2.40 per foot. If the rock is quite soft, such as in a serpentine, it will be necessary to install a casing in the hole. The least expensive casing that will not deteriorate within the life required should be used. Plastic pipe or black iron pipe are commonly used. In soft rock, it may be necessary to drill with a casing to prevent the col-

Jan 1, 1971

By W. L. Honnold

(San Francisco Meeting, September, 1915) OWING to a unique labor situation and other unusual circumstances, the mining methods of the Rand are hardly comparable with practice elsewhere. They are&apos; of considerable interest, however, and their impor-tance is increased by the magnitude of the industry with which they are identified, gold of $166,186,000 value, say 40 per cent. of the world&apos;s production, having been recovered from 25,701,954 tons of ore milled in 1914. In the sketchy remarks to follow, attention will first be drawn to some influential factors of general bearing, after which certain features at two mines of the writer&apos;s group will be referred to. It is hoped that engineers associated with similar or different conditions and practice will contribute to broaden the discussion. Before proceeding, recognition is due the generous assistance of C. E. Knecht and F. A. Unger. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS The principal mines are situated along the northern limit of an irregularly shaped geological basin, and extend in almost unbroken continuity over a distance of about 60 miles. As the boundaries are defined by vertical planes there are both "outcrop" and "deep-level" properties, all differing in size and in technical features. So much has been written in regard to the geology of the Rand that only a few pertinent features need here be recalled. Briefly, the ore deposits are profitably enriched portions of certain conglomerate beds or "reefs," rarely more than three, which are interposed between quartzite, or quartzite and slate, and lie so closely together that where more than one are mined they are dealt with as a work-ing unit, although they may lie stoped separately. Their collective extension is locally referred to as "the Reef."

Jan 8, 1915

By Cyril Stanley Smith

For many years sulphur and its congeners selenium and tellurium have been regarded as very harmful elements in copper and copper-rich alloys. Like many similar prejudices, this has been found to be partly wrong. All three of these elements actually have no great effect on the working properties of copper and its alloys, and are desirable additions in that they considerably enhance the machinability of alloys in which they are present. Because of their possible commercial importance, a study of the machinability and other properties of the pure binary alloys was made, as described in this paper, and the effect of selenium on a large number of copper alloys was determined. The current opinion regarding the deleterious effects of elements in this group undoubtedly arose because of occasional failures of tough-pitch copper containing unusually high tellurium, and because of the well-known fact that sulphur causes spewing and unsoundness in tough-pitch copper. Siebe,1 also Deretchey and Margolina,2 studied the effect of sulphur on copper and showed that in the absence of oxygen it was present in the form of copper sulphide, which was less harmful to the properties than an equivalent amount of copper oxide. No data have been published on selenium and tellurium, although the statement is often made, following Eggleston,3 that tellurium makes copper hot-short. Copper specifications call for only traces of these elements. Skowronski and Mosher4 give data on the effect of selenium and tellurium on the conductivity of tough-pitch copper. In private communication Mr. Skowronski says that the samples were hot-forged from small castings and drawn to 0.081 in. diameter, but it should not be inferred from this that these elements are harmless to the working properties of wirebars and commercial shapes. Constitution and Microstructure Constitution.—Sulphur, selenium and tellurium exist in their alloys with copper in the form of copper sulphide, selenide or telluride. These compounds are practically insoluble in the solid state and possess limited

Jan 1, 1938

By George B. Langford

The McIntyre mine is in the Pearl Lake section of the Porcupine gold area. The rocks are Keewatin lavas intruded by quartz porphyries and albitite dies of Algoman age. Gold-bearing quartz veins are found in the Keewatin rocks near the porphyry stocks. The whole area has been highly compressed by forces acting along a N. 20°W. line. These forces folded the Keewatin rocks before the intrusion of the Algoman rocks, and later schisted both the Keewatin and Algoman rocks. Vein fractures were developed after the folding but before the development of the schist by the compres-sive forces being locally broken up into couples. These couples were set up by the differential resistance to deformation of porphyries and basalts, and also by the competency of the dacites and incompetency of the tuffs and fragmental rocks. During the important period of vein formation, two zones were developed—an inner productive zone in which the quartz veins are ankerite-bearing and an outer barren zone in which the quartz veins are calcite-bearing. The vein solutions originated in the same magrna that supplied the albitite dikes. Introduction The McIntyre mine, in the Porcupine gold area of northern Ontario, has passed its twenty-sixth birthday and has been producing gold since early in 1912. During this time approximately ten million tons of ore has been mined and over three and a half million ounces of gold recovered. This amount of ore would be sufficient to fill 2300 standard railway freight trains, each of 100 cars, and the gold produced, although only equivalent to a cube 51/2 ft. to the side, would weigh approximately 100 tons, a load for three freight cars. Silver has been produced in the ratio of 1 oz. of silver to every 4.4 oz. of gold, so that the total silver recovery is in the neighborhood of 700,000 ounces. The early history of the mine, like that of many others, shows that for several years it fought an uphill struggle for existence. One of the important features in winning this fight was the early recognition of some of the geological conditions responsible for the ore deposits, and the application of this knowledge in the search for ore and in the acquiring of adjoining properties. As early as 1913—only two years after the mine was opened—a geological department was organiaed. It has functioned almost continuously since that date and has demonstrated the importance

Jan 1, 1941

By C. E. Abbott

The Birmingham district, Alabama, is distinctive in the proximity to one another of its deposits of iron ore, coal and flux. These three basic requisites for the making of iron and steel are found within a radius of 10 miles. Both dolomite and limestone are produced, the former for blast-furnace flux and the latter for basic open-hearth operations. The Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co., a subsidiary of the United States Steel Corporation, operates a limestone mine at Muscoda, near Bessemer, 12 miles southwest of Birmingham, served by its own railroad transportation system. The mine has a capacity of 130 tons per hour. Average analyses of a recent month&apos;s production arc as follows: Fe²zO³ SiO² Al²O³ CaCO³ MgCO³ Lump, percent............................. 0.51 0.22 98.63 0.14 Crushed and washed, per cent,................ 0.70 0.26 98.36 0.18 Lump stone, 2 1/2 to 755 in., is used in open-hearth operations at Fairfield Steel Works. Fine crushed and washed stone, 1% to 0.063 in., is calcined at the lime-burning plant and used for lime charges at the Ensley open hearths. Geology The district&apos;s deposits of hematite ore occur in the Clinton formation, and the limestone beds mined are stratigraphically 330 ft. above the ore beds worked. A cross section on the center line of the mine is shown in Fig. 1. This limestone formation, 130 ft. thick, is in the Warsaw horizon of the Lower Mississippian. It lies above 100 ft. of Fort Payne chert, which is immediately above the Clinton formation, and is composcd of layers of chert and cherty limestone, approximately 50 per cent of the material being pure chert. The chert is extremely hard, and the cost of driving raises through it is very high. Both iron ore and limestone deposits lie on the southwest limb of the Jones Valley anticline, the formations dipping from 15&apos; to 32&apos; to the southeast. The iron-ore seam outcrops along the crest of Red Mountain, a ridge with northeast-southwest trend rising 200 to 300 ft. above Jones and Shades valleys at the

Jan 1, 1938

By Cyril Stanley Smith

For many years sulphur and its congeners selenium and tellurium have been regarded as very harmful elements in copper and copper-rich alloys. Like many similar prejudices, this has been found to be partly wrong. All three of these elements actually have no great effect on the working properties of copper and its alloys, and are desirable additions in that they considerably enhance the machinability of alloys in which they are present. Because of their possible commercial importance, a study of the machinability and other properties of the pure binary alloys was made, as described in this paper, and the effect of selenium on a large number of copper alloys was determined. The current opinion regarding the deleterious effects of elements in this group undoubtedly arose because of occasional failures of tough-pitch copper containing unusually high tellurium, and because of the well-known fact that sulphur causes spewing and unsoundness in tough-pitch copper. Siebe,1 also Deretchey and Margolina,2 studied the effect of sulphur on copper and showed that in the absence of oxygen it was present in the form of copper sulphide, which was less harmful to the properties than an equivalent amount of copper oxide. No data have been published on selenium and tellurium, although the statement is often made, following Eggleston,3 that tellurium makes copper hot-short. Copper specifications call for only traces of these elements. Skowronski and Mosher4 give data on the effect of selenium and tellurium on the conductivity of tough-pitch copper. In private communication Mr. Skowronski says that the samples were hot-forged from small castings and drawn to 0.081 in. diameter, but it should not be inferred from this that these elements are harmless to the working properties of wirebars and commercial shapes. Constitution and Microstructure Constitution.—Sulphur, selenium and tellurium exist in their alloys with copper in the form of copper sulphide, selenide or telluride. These compounds are practically insoluble in the solid state and possess limited

Jan 1, 1938

By George B. Langford

The McIntyre mine is in the Pearl Lake section of the Porcupine gold area. The rocks are Keewatin lavas intruded by quartz porphyries and albitite dies of Algoman age. Gold-bearing quartz veins are found in the Keewatin rocks near the porphyry stocks. The whole area has been highly compressed by forces acting along a N. 20°W. line. These forces folded the Keewatin rocks before the intrusion of the Algoman rocks, and later schisted both the Keewatin and Algoman rocks. Vein fractures were developed after the folding but before the development of the schist by the compres-sive forces being locally broken up into couples. These couples were set up by the differential resistance to deformation of porphyries and basalts, and also by the competency of the dacites and incompetency of the tuffs and fragmental rocks. During the important period of vein formation, two zones were developed—an inner productive zone in which the quartz veins are ankerite-bearing and an outer barren zone in which the quartz veins are calcite-bearing. The vein solutions originated in the same magrna that supplied the albitite dikes. Introduction The McIntyre mine, in the Porcupine gold area of northern Ontario, has passed its twenty-sixth birthday and has been producing gold since early in 1912. During this time approximately ten million tons of ore has been mined and over three and a half million ounces of gold recovered. This amount of ore would be sufficient to fill 2300 standard railway freight trains, each of 100 cars, and the gold produced, although only equivalent to a cube 51/2 ft. to the side, would weigh approximately 100 tons, a load for three freight cars. Silver has been produced in the ratio of 1 oz. of silver to every 4.4 oz. of gold, so that the total silver recovery is in the neighborhood of 700,000 ounces. The early history of the mine, like that of many others, shows that for several years it fought an uphill struggle for existence. One of the important features in winning this fight was the early recognition of some of the geological conditions responsible for the ore deposits, and the application of this knowledge in the search for ore and in the acquiring of adjoining properties. As early as 1913—only two years after the mine was opened—a geological department was organiaed. It has functioned almost continuously since that date and has demonstrated the importance

Jan 1, 1941

By C. E. Abbott

The Birmingham district, Alabama, is distinctive in the proximity to one another of its deposits of iron ore, coal and flux. These three basic requisites for the making of iron and steel are found within a radius of 10 miles. Both dolomite and limestone are produced, the former for blast-furnace flux and the latter for basic open-hearth operations. The Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co., a subsidiary of the United States Steel Corporation, operates a limestone mine at Muscoda, near Bessemer, 12 miles southwest of Birmingham, served by its own railroad transportation system. The mine has a capacity of 130 tons per hour. Average analyses of a recent month&apos;s production arc as follows: Fe²zO³ SiO² Al²O³ CaCO³ MgCO³ Lump, percent............................. 0.51 0.22 98.63 0.14 Crushed and washed, per cent,................ 0.70 0.26 98.36 0.18 Lump stone, 2 1/2 to 755 in., is used in open-hearth operations at Fairfield Steel Works. Fine crushed and washed stone, 1% to 0.063 in., is calcined at the lime-burning plant and used for lime charges at the Ensley open hearths. Geology The district&apos;s deposits of hematite ore occur in the Clinton formation, and the limestone beds mined are stratigraphically 330 ft. above the ore beds worked. A cross section on the center line of the mine is shown in Fig. 1. This limestone formation, 130 ft. thick, is in the Warsaw horizon of the Lower Mississippian. It lies above 100 ft. of Fort Payne chert, which is immediately above the Clinton formation, and is composcd of layers of chert and cherty limestone, approximately 50 per cent of the material being pure chert. The chert is extremely hard, and the cost of driving raises through it is very high. Both iron ore and limestone deposits lie on the southwest limb of the Jones Valley anticline, the formations dipping from 15&apos; to 32&apos; to the southeast. The iron-ore seam outcrops along the crest of Red Mountain, a ridge with northeast-southwest trend rising 200 to 300 ft. above Jones and Shades valleys at the

Jan 1, 1938

By Hans Lundberg

In order to comprehend the help and information that may be expected from electrical prospecting, it is necessary to have at least a general knowledge of the methods and principles involved in preparing and interpreting results obtained in the field. Electrical prospecting is rather complicated, both in theory and practice, and in order to make a brief description clear to the practical mining man it has been necessary to idealize and generalize the problems, at the risk of having such simplification criticized by the theoretical man. This simplification must not be misinterpreted as showing a lack of theoretical knowledge. For its operation, electrical prospecting mainly depends on the fact that most metallic ores conduct an electric current much more readily than barren rocks. If an electric current flows through a block of ground within which a body of chalcopyrite is enclosed in country rock of schist, the current will find less resistance to its passage through the chalcopyrite than through the schist, even though the passage through the latter be much shorter. This is because the longer path through the chalcopyrite offers less resistance, owing to the superior electrical conductivity of the chalcopyrite (Fig. 1). The good conductor, chalcopyrite, in the poor conductor, schist, thus attracts the current and deflects the normal flow far outside the conduct-

Jan 1, 1929

By Everett H. Graff, Ray H. Misener

THE Sol de Oro mine is in the province of Nazca, 487 km. southeast of Lima, and 60 km. inland from the coast at an elevation of 1200 m. above sea level. From Lima the mine may be reached in 8 hr. by automobile; 472 km. from Lima to Nazca over the paved Pan-American Highway and 15 km. from Nazca to the mine over a good graveled road. The trip from Lima can also be made in 2 hr. via the Faucett Air Lines which make two stops weekly at Nazca. The [Compania] Aurifera Nazca, owning and operating the Sol de Oro mine, was organized in Lima in 1930 by a group of prominent Peruvian mining men, including Ing. Carlos Alvarez Calderon, Dr. Alfredo Alvarez Calderón, Ing. Hector Boza, Ing. Jorge Félix Remy, Ing. Eulogio Femandini, Sr. Fernando Wiese, and Sr. Julio East. The nine claims in the Sol de Oro group owned by the company comprise an area of 52 square kilometers. Development of the property was not started until 1932 and only then under adverse conditions, owing to lack of transportation facilities. Mining machinery and other supplies could be taken as far as Ica by boat and railroad, but to transport them over the 180 km. of hot, sandy desert from Ica to the mine was a problem. There was no road in those days and only a few of the most venturesome truck drivers cared to contract the hauling. Another problem the company had to face was that of securing adequate labor. The Sol de Oro is in an agricultural region, and was forced to look to the near-by cotton plantations for men. Experienced men were imported from the "sierras," but they did not stay. The men are accustomed to high altitudes and cold climate and cannot easily acclimate themselves to the hot and arid coastal region. As a consequence the company has been forced to hire the inexperienced local laborers and train them for mining. The company has established three separate camps at the Sol de Oro property. Each is approximately one kilometer from the other and connected by auto road. The upper mine camp consists of living quarters for 300 workmen and their families, a general mine office, carpenter shop and timber-framing shed, compressor house, drill-sharpening and drill-repair shop, first-aid station, time office, school and store. At the central or "empleados" camp there is a 200-ton cyanide plant, general offices, warehouse, powerhouse, shops, laboratory, hospital, school, guest house, an 18-room hotel for the single staffmen, and 12 completely modern five-room cottages for the married staff employees. At the lower camp are living quarters for 200 workmen and their families, two general stores, a school and a small theater. Below this camp, along the river, are the company wells and pumping plant supplying water for mine, mill, and camp uses.

Jan 1, 1945

By Emil Gathmann

(San Francisco Meeting, September, 1915) THROUGH wide experience at numerous mills in the United States I have found that there is a decided difference of opinion among the producers of steel as to what constitutes commercially sound steel. Some metallurgists insist upon having, for certain grades of steel, a so-called "open steel," -i.e., one which contains numerous blowholes of varying sizes, and consequently but little volume of true pipe, although a central intermittent shrinkage cavity often extends well down into the ingot: Such blowholes and pipe are expected to weld up during rolling or forging, because their surfaces are not oxidized. Even if this be admitted, included slag particles and a high degree of segregation are bound to be present in the product of such ingots. Blowholes are the result of an oxidized heat, and all heats, unless made or finished in the electric furnace, are oxidized more or less. Subsequent deoxidation, or rather degasification, either in the ladle or in the mold, or in both, is necessary to reduce or prevent blowholes. As is well known, a greater yield of billets or sheets is secured from the ingot by allowing the formation of blowholes, but this is undoubtedly obtained at the expense of the quality of the product. Decided segregation of carbon, phosphorus, and sulphur, as well as small included slag particles, undoubtedly exists throughout the greater portion of all so-called open steel, and cannot be removed by cropping. The first requisite for sound, homogeneous steel ingots and blooms is therefore, in my opinion, so to treat the steel in the furnace, ladle, and mold that "piping" steel is produced. The line of demarcation between harmful and so-called "harmless" blowholes is practically impossible to define. Is it not, therefore, the better and safer practice to use means for the elimination of blowholes and correspondingly reduce the segregation and allow the formation of a well-defined shrinkage cavity or pipe .at the upper end of the ingot? With the relatively cheap deoxidizers available at the present time, e.g., ferro-silicon, aluminum and titanium,

Jan 8, 1915

By K. B. Nowels

The attainment of efficient flooding to a large extent depends upon a knowledge of fluid movement through porous media and the pressures used in controlling this movement. Little has been understood con-cerning the fundamental principles involved in the forced drive of water-flooding and an attempt will be made to present some data which may be of interest. Considerable data and technical information pertaining to natural and artificial water-flooding have been presented in the past by Torrey, Umpleby, Fettke, Panyity and others. Their papers have thoroughly covered the description of past and present-day methods of oil recovery by flooding in the Bradford field, especially an article by Torreyl in the Petroleum Engineering Handbook. A bibliography of papers devoted to watcr-flooding, published in Mr. Torrey&apos;s article, is appended to this paper. No attempt has been made, therefore, to describe the installations and procedure necessary in flooding, thus permitting the writer to deal exclusively with the mechanics of water movement in flooding operations and its relationship to well spacing. Artificial water-flooding will probably always be the most successful in oil fields described by Herold as being under "capillary control"" and will probably be useless in fields naturally under hydraulic or volumetric control. The natural water drive in an oil field under either of these two controls may give efficient recoveries, as a result of the regulated encroachment of edge water. Such a "natural flood" resulting from the influence of edge water must not be confused with the term as used in this paper, however. Any reference to "natural flood" will here refer to the old method of flooding formerly used in the Bradford field. This was discovered largely by accident and utilized the hydrostatic pressure created by a column of water standing in a watered-out oil well in forcing the oil to an adjacent producing well. The same principles are involved in either natural or artificial flooding, and the latter method simply

Jan 1, 1933

By A. B. Dyes, P. H. Braun, B. E. Cole

This paper presents a reservoir engineering analysis of the performance data for a waterflooding project in the Johnson Lease, South Ward field. This type of engineering analysis adds to the knowledge of the mechanics of water flooding. This study reveals that in general (a) high ultimate areal sweep-out efficiencies (95 to 100 per cent) can be expected, and (b) cross-flow among strata of different permeabilities during the fill-up phase can have an important influence on the behavior and should be dealt with in studying reservoirs for water flooding. The analysis further showed that the recovery predictions based on what was considered a consistent interpretation of core data and logs were low because little contribution was assumed from the low permeability, oil-bearing sand sections which have apparently yielded considerable waterflood oil. This project has yielded in excess of 2 1/2 times as much oil by water flooding as by primary depletion. These very favorable results were achieved without the use of any special injection well completion techniques. However, all of the low permeability material war included in the section open to injection despite its poor estimated primary yield. LEASE PERFORMANCE HISTORY The South Ward field lies in the southeast corner of Ward County near the southern tip of the tremendous Yates trend. Deposition of sand bodies along the seashore reefs during the latter part of the Permian period established what have turned out to be ideal conditions to form a great number of independent productive sands. Probably, these reservoirs in Ward and Winkler counties are providing operators with some of the nation&apos;s richest sources of secondary oil reserves through the use of waterflooding techniques. In South Ward field water has been very successfully used to flood oil from the Bennett sand occurring at a depth of about 2,300 to 2,400 ft. About 150 ft above the Bennett sand reservoir, the Grand Falls sand produced gas from a large cap extending over most of the field. The Atlantic Refining Co.&apos;s 320-acre W. D. Johnson lease (Fig. 1) is on the northwest edge of the structure with only gas cap apparently present in the Grand Falls sand. The Bennett sand under this lease is oil productive, however, having a gross sand thickness averaging about 80 ft with a net of 18 ft of fairly clean, highly permeable sand, and about 36 ft of oil-bearing sand with low permeability and high water saturation. The lower permeability sand is interbedded with numerous layers of lime, shale, and anhydrite. Radioactivity logs from 12 wells and cores from two, examples of which are shown in Fig. 2, reveal that the total Bennett sand pore volume is about 71,000 bbl/acre. The estimated initial water saturation averages 41 per cent in the 54 ft of sand considered to contain oil; thus, also considering an estimated 18 per cent oil shrinkage, the lease originally contained about 34,000 bbl of oil per acre. Original pressure was probably about 1,400 psig. PVT correlations indicate that the reservoir fluid was originally saturated with gas. After discovery of the field in 1930, Atlantic completed the first well on the Johnson lease in March,

Jan 1, 1958