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By Dale R. Andrus

Why is there such an increased thrust toward positive multiple use land management and where will it lead? History and purpose of the mining law of 1872. John Marshall discovered gold at Sutter?s mill near Coloma, California, on January 19, 1848, and utter chaos resulted. The great migration of people to the undeveloped western lands had begun. Prior to this discovery, copper, lead, and iron had been the minerals for which the laws were made. With this discovery of gold on the public domain, it became apparent that congressional legislation was necessary. This became even more apparent as each of the numerous mining districts which were springing up in California, and elsewhere in the west adopted local miners' customs to regulate their activities. Although these early miners acted under mining district rules and in some cases state regulations, they were, in reality, appropriating minerals without sanction of federal law.

Jan 1, 1970

By J. C. Adams

Although explosives constitute only a small portion of a mine's total cost, the relative success of each blast has a tremendous effect on subsequent activities such as excavation, crushing, and equipment maintenance. Beginning in January of 1993, tests were carried out to determine whether productivity could be improved by replacing standard ammonium nitrate fuel oil mixtures (ANFO) with a high density, high performance blasting agent. The study was carried out at gold mines, coal mines, and cement quarries in Nevada, California, Colorado, and New Mexico. A wide variety of rock types and blasting conditions were encountered. Results showed that at most operations productivity was sufficiently improved to more than offset the increase in explosives cost. This resulted in a net reduction in mining cost. This paper presents a summary of these results.

Jan 1, 1996

By E. Viet Howard

During the recent expansion of precipitate copper production at the Chino Mines Division of Kennecott Copper Corporation, Santa Rita, New Mexico, local studies of the dump leaching process were intensified. As these studies progressed it became apparent that a reliable method for locating leach solutions within the dump was required, since the contact between leach solutions and the copper-bearing material would determine, in great part, the recovery of values. In the past, the problem of determining leach solution contact has been attacked by various methods, including destructive testing (dump dissection), indirect observation (such as chloride or dye tracers), and mathematical or laboratory model studies. These methods have not proved completely satisfactory for the studies now being developed. Investigation of methods for in situ observation of leach solutions led to consideration of radiation logging in drill holes, which are petro¬leum exploration and development techniques for locating fluids and measuring porosity in the subsurface. Standard oil field logging equipment was leased, modified, and tested. After successful testing, the equipment was purchased for additional studies. Applications and results of the methods are described in this paper.

Jan 1, 1968

In some 35 years in the explosive and construction industries, we have probably seen the extremes in drilling and blasting practices. All of you know that it is difficult if not impossible, to separate those two operations, particularly when we are searching for an optimum. Early in my career while doing engineering survey work for a major cross country pipeline construction company, we witnessed some of the wildest blasts imaginable, and they were wild for two reasons. Both the drill hole diameter and the drill pattern were such that when loaded with explosives, the factor in terms of pounds/cu. yd. was extremely high. On the other hand, in 1982 we were in an underground coal mine where just one hole was used to prepare a 20-ft. (6m) wide face. In this coal mine, they brought down 7 yd3 (5.35m3) of coal with just 1 lb. (.454 kg) of explosive. On a pipeline job, the factor may only be .1 yd3 per lb. of explosives. Open pit operations in the same geographical area may have almost the same type of rock, but similarities could end there. The several operators over the years will have installed different size-crushing equipment or variances will exist in other facets such as drilling, excavating, and haulage units. That tells us that if we have 6 operations in that common area, we are faced with a fact that there is an optimum drilling and blasting pattern for each of those six. We start at that point. We will note from Figure No. 2 the simple equations for determining either cu. yds. or tons. For a rock heavier than limestone, it may require only 10 to 11 cu. ft. (.31m3) for 1 ton (.91 metric ton) of rock in place.

Jan 1, 1986

By Hou Xilun

Three production methods of rapid cold bonding and low temperature bonding pellets using sponge iron powder as a binder have been successfully developed. These methods differ from ordinary bonding method by no addition of salt and other catalyzers, no corrosion of equipment and no pollution of environment. Mechanism of pellet bonding is studied. Experiment shows that these pellets have good metallurgical properties. A semi-industrial test has proven the laboratory results, with the production of metallic pellets continuous and stable. These methods are substituted for traditional high temperature firing of oxidized pellets in direct reduction. As a result, the plant for oxidized pellets can be saved and substituted for grate in the grate-kiln system. Thus, 20% of the investment could be saved. Production cost may also be decreased. The production of cold bonding pellets does not need additional area.

Jan 1, 1980

By O. H. Rostad

The importance of geology in ore reserve estimation has been stated by several authors. King et, a1 (1982) reported that the geological factor was the key deficiency where serious weaknesses in ore reserve estimation appeared, especially in grade. The foundation for a successful mining operation is an ore reserve estimate that neither overstates nor understates the true situation as to tonnage and grade. Overestimation of reserves can have devastating economic results. Overestimation of tonnage may lead to wasting money on an overbuilt plant or worse yet, if grade is seriously overestimated also, to undertaking an operation that is doomed to economic failure from the outset. Understated ore reserves can result in building a plant that is smaller than optimum which may result in higher unit costs. At worst, understated tonnage of ore reserves can result in a missed opportunity for a profitable operation. Failure of the ore reserve estimator to properly take into account all geologic and allied factors pertaining to the deposit can result in an ore reserve estimate that is overstated either as to tonnage or grade or both. This paper will focus on these factors and will not discuss rules about distances above or below a drift that should be given a classification of proven or probable, etc. Each deposit has its own particular characteristics which often require modification of general rules for defining limits of proven and probable ore blocks that work satisfactorily in another deposit. A number of references are included which discuss some of these problems. Definitions of ore reserve classifications and an illustration are given in the Appendix.

Jan 1, 1985

By P. R. Taylor

A reaction is evaluated by which heated and pressurized water is used to precipitate metal oxides from loaded Kelex 100 complexes. Pure copper oxide (CuO) and pure nickel (Nio) in powder form, and ranging in average size from 12 to 25 micrometers, were found to precipitate from copper and nickel loaded Kelex 100/kerosene complexes, by water heated and pressurized to between 374 and 400 °c and 2170 psig (148 atm) and 3500 psig (238 atm). The precipitation is suggested to result from hydrolysis of the metal, following exchange for the hydrogen in the phenolic hydroxyl of the Kelex 100 structure, enhanced by the conditions provided by heated and pressurized water. The reaction is believed to have the characteristics of homogeneous nucleation and heterogeneous growth. The effects of temperature, pressure, initial metal concentration and seed addition on the kinetics of the process were studied. In addition, characterization studies were performed on the reaction products. A detailed discussion of the experimental results is presented.

Jan 1, 1992

By R. H. Parker, B. A. Wills, D. G. Binns

Introduction With the increasing need to mine lower grade ores, high energy-related costs in comminution are of major concern. Very fine grinding is needed to liberate the fine mineral particles in these ores. Not only is this expensive, but it leads to greater losses in slimes. Gravity concentration techniques become unacceptably inefficient for particle treatment below 25 to 50 µm, and even flotation fails in the ultra-fine range. Ore from the South Crofty mine near Redruth, Cornwall, was subjected to thermal pretreatment in the hope that differential thermal expansion of the minerals would lead to intergranular cracking, and thus enhanced liberation. South Crofty ore contains about 1% tin as cassiterite associated with a complex assemblage of quartz, chlorite, tourmaline, and hema¬tite in granite and slate. Recovery of cassiterite can be as low as 70%, as overgrinding occurs during stage reduction of the material to 1 mm (primary grinding) and 180 µm (regrinding). Cassiterite is present in grain sizes ranging from submicroscopic to + 10 mm, the bulk being predominantly in the range of 50 µm to 3 mm. Experimental Flat polished sections of the ore were photographed in reflected light using a Vickers M17 microscope. The sections were then heated in a Carbolite LMF4 muffle furnace. The heating rate and temperature were monitored by a thermocouple immersed in the bed of particles. Previous work by Sherring (1981) on the same material showed that a 55% reduction in grinding resistance occurred when the material was rapidly heated and cooled through the quartz inversion tem¬perature (573°C), where a volumetric expansion of 0.86% occurs. The samples were therefore heated to 650°C at 26°/min, and were then water-quenched to room temperature. The effect of heat treatment on the mineralogy and fracture network was assessed by examining the same area after treatment. Results Most of the sections examined showed that extensive transgranular cracking occurred as a result of heat treatment. Such cracking, although weakening the rock and hence reducing the work index, would in no way enhance the liberation of the cassiterite from the host minerals. Intergranular cracking, which would lead to enhanced liberation, was difficult to discern under reflected light, but there was evidence of such cracking in some of the sections examined. Figures 1 and 2 are examples of typical sections before and after heat treatment. Figures la and lb - show cassiterite in hematite, Fig. lb, in normal incident illumination, illustrating clearly that after heat treatment, transgranular fracture is evident in the cassiterite. If any intergranular cracking has occurred, it is not evident in this photograph. Figures 2a and 2b show cassiterite in quartz before and after treatment. Fracturing in both minerals after treatment can clearly be seen, and there is evidence of intergranular fracturing. However, protruding "arms" of cassiterite are severed by transgranular fracture. Subgrains of quartz have also been isolated by trans¬granular fracture. There is major transgranular cracking across the wider sections of cassiterite. Discussion The effect of rapidly heating South Crofty tin ore to 650°C, followed by water-quenching to room temperature, has been studied by observing the fracture networks in mineral grains. The choice of 650°C as the heating temperature was influenced by the work of Sherring (1981), who found considerable reduction in grinding resistance after thermal pretreatment of the same ore. Scheding et al. (1981), however, have shown, by means of a crude calculation, that heat treatment cannot be justified solely on the basis of reduced grinding costs. The cost of heat treatment far out-weighs that of grinding, resulting in the combined costs for heat treatment being over six times that for grinding unheated material. The most economically attractive aspect of heat treatment is the possibility of enhanced liberation of the valuable mineral due to increased intergranular rather than transgranular fracture. Grinding costs would be greatly reduced by improved liberation at coarser sizes, and the costs of ancillary processes, such as dewatering and tailings disposal, would be reduced. The most significant economic effect, however, would be in improved metallurgical efficiency. Improved liberation would increase concentrate grades, and recoveries would be higher, particularly in the case of ores where high slime losses are produced due to the excessively fine grinding required to produce adequate liberation. Manser (1983) has shown that only a 1% increase in tin recovery, at the same concentrate grade, would be sufficient to offset heat treatment costs on South Crofty ore. Heavy liquid analysis and shaking table separation have been used to evaluate the effect of thermal treatment on processing (Binns, 1984; Scheding, 1981; Sherring, 1981). However, treatment of unheated and heated samples of South Crofty ore, ground to the same product size, by such methods have shown little evidence of improved metallurgical efficiency after thermal pretreatment. The large amount of transgranular fracturing revealed by reflected light studies helps to explain this lack of improvement. Nevertheless, from the evidence of some of the fracture work, it is surprising that no improvements in metallurgical

Jan 1, 1988

By Rees D. Groves

Cement copper is ordinarily converted to marketable metal by processing in a conventional smelter and refinery. Because of rapidly increasing cement copper production and limited excess smelting capacity, other techniques were investigated for preparing marketable copper products. One route was to make copper powder for industrial use. The process scheme employed flotation for rejecting the bulk of the impurities, acid leaching to remove residual iron and aluminum, reduction sintering to eliminate oxygen, and grinding to obtain powder. Another route was to sinter the floated and leached copper into the form of anodes and electrolyze these to yield refined copper cathodes. At a current density of 30 amperes per square foot, power consumption for electrorefining was 185 kwhr per ton of copper. The feasibility of preparing commercial-size anodes by sintering is still to be assessed.

Jan 1, 1970

By Y. Numata

2-Mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) is a heterocyclic-mercaptan and belongs to a group of molecules containing nitrogen and sulfur as electron donor atoms. MBT has been employed as a collector in flotation under names of MBT, Captax, and Flotagen. It is a major constituent of reagents in the 400 series of the American Cyanamid Co. Current applications of the reagent include flotation of copper minerals, tarnished or oxidized lead, copper activated sphalerite, and nickel ores. It has been used successfully in the flotation of pyrite in acid circuits in the range of 4 to 5.

Jan 1, 1990

By Terry I. Mudder

Metal complexed cyanides in wastewaters form as a result of interactions of free cyanide with metals present in the wastewater and exhibit varying degrees of stability, toxicity, and treatability. Thiocyanate, a pollutant commonly found in cyanide bearing wastewaters, is formed through the interaction of free cyanide with sulfur containing species (i. e. pyrrhotite) both present in the wastewater. In certain industrial processes, such as the beneficiation of gold and silver, cyanide is an essential reagent. Since free cyanide, complexed cyanides, and thiocyanate are potentially toxic to humans and aquatic organisms, these compounds must be removed from wastewaters prior to their discharge into surface or ground waters serving as potential potable water sources, marine or fresh water habitats

Jan 1, 1984

By Taekhee Lee, Steven Mischler, Shawn Vanderslice

Diesel-powered equipment is widely used in the underground mining industry and their popularity results from properties including efficiency, versatility, reliability, and durability. In the U.S. approximately 7,700 diesel engines were used in 177 underground metal and nonmetal mines as of 2005 [MSHA 2005], and these numbers have likely increased since that time. Diesel engines have been shown to be a major contributor to submicron carbonaceous, respirable, and total particulate mass in the air of underground metal mines [Zielinska et al. 2002, McDonald et al. 2003], and their extensive use results in approximately 13,000 underground metal/nonmetal (M/NM) miners (MSHA 2005) in the U.S. being potentially exposed to aerosols and gases emitted by diesel engines (MSHA 2001, MSHA 2006). Exposure to diesel exhaust has been linked to adverse health outcomes including cancer, cardiovascular, and respiratory diseases (Attfield et al. 2012, Silverman et al. 2012), and in 2012 diesel exhaust was categorized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a Group 1 human carcinogen (IARC 2012). Exposure to diesel particulate matter (DPM) is especially concerning for underground miners since underground mine environments have been shown to have some of the highest levels of diesel exhaust in the U.S. (EPA 2002, MSHA 2001, MSHA 2006, Pronk et al. 2009). Due to the potential for elevated DPM concentrations in mines, the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) promulgated a rule to limit exposures of metal/ nonmetal underground miners to DPM to an eight-hour time-weighted average (TWA) of 160 μg/m3 total carbon (TC) (MSHA 2001, MSHA 2006, MSHA 2008). Since this rule went into effect, DPM exposures have been reduced, but are still elevated when compared to other occupations (Pronk et al. 2009, Noll et al. 2015). MSHA compliance data between 2005 to the present show that underground blasters represent 21% of all DPM overexposures in M/NM mines and are one of the highest exposed professions in mining often resulting from low ventilation in the area where blasters are working. Because mines have difficulty controlling DPM in these low ventilation areas, additional control technologies may be needed to reduce exposures. Administrative controls, where miners work on off schedules or upstream of diesel vehicles to avoid the exposures to DPM (Noll et al. 2015) is one possibility, but these types of solutions are not always feasible or practical. A canopy air curtain is another potential control technology to help reduce exposures of blasters to DPM. Listak and Beck (2012) showed that this control technology reduced respirable dust concentration under a roof bolter’s canopy by 67%–75% and recommended air velocities greater than 0.5 m/s for dust reductions of greater than 50%. Additional work showed that a canopy air curtain could be designed for a shuttle car, and some initial testing by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) showed reductions of respirable mine dust between 66% to 70%. As seen in Figure 1, the canopy air curtain delivers clean air over the operator’s breathing zone. A fan draws in air through a filter to capture the dust and then supplies clean air beneath the canopy where a miner is working. The use of the canopy air curtain to reduce exposures to diesel particulate matter was first discussed by Noll et al. (2020). In this study the diesel canopy air curtain (DCAC) reduced the DPM concentrations under the canopy by up to 90%. For this research the DCAC was designed to attach to the basket cover of an ammonium nitrate fuel oil ( ANFO) loader (Figure 2) and provide clean air blowing over the miners as they work in the basket. The initial tests used clean air drawn from the mine’s intake and did not try to filter the DPM from the air. Filtering DPM has extra challenges when compared to filtering mine dust particles. The particles of DPM are smaller (submicron and nanometer) than dust particles (greater than 1 micron); therefore, the filtration system must be adjusted to capture submicron particles. A MERV 13 filter was used in previous canopy air curtain research on mine dust control, but this filter is only designed to capture 50%–75% of submicron particles, and this capture efficiency is too low for removing DPM, so a higher efficiency filter is needed. Higher efficiency filters increase the pressure across the filter media which results in decreased airflow or leaks around the filter and reduces the effectiveness of the control for protecting miners from DPM. The optimal filter needs to capture DPM particles at a high efficiency while still allowing the needed airflows to prevent contaminated air from entering the miner’s breathing zone. Listak and Beck (2012) recommended velocities greater than 0.5 m/s for dust reductions of greater than 50%. However, airflows too high have been shown to reduce miners’ thermal comfort; Roghanchi et al. (2016) suggest the optimal velocity for thermal comfort is between 1–2 m/s. Thus, airflow over the miner should be limited to the range of 0.5 to 2.0 m/s. This current study presents the results from research evaluating the reduction of DPM concentrations, under the DCAC, when using a higher efficiency filter (MERV 16) to remove DPM from the DCAC airstream.

Feb 1, 2024

By Robert R. French

Commercial grade gypsum beds up to 16 feet thick is present in southwestern Indiana. The major deposits are found at a depth of 350 feet to more than 500 feet below the surface. The ore body averages about 75 to 95 percent gypsum. Two companies are currently exploiting a deposit which underlies an area of several square miles near Shoals, in Martin County. Another deposit has been located in southwestern Owen County but has not been developed. The Indiana Geological Survey is currently drilling in Greene County and is considering further exploratory work in Perry end Dubois Counties.

Jan 1, 1965

Because the Environmental Protection Agency has identified methane as a greenhouse gas, the importance of de gasification through gob wells has become more critical. It has been observed that the degree of methane emission is closely related to the geomechanical characteristics of coal bearing strata, roof, floor, and surrounding coal seams. Monthly production data from 250 gob wells were collected from the Warrior Basin in Alabama, and many interesting correlations were observed between methane production with longwall face width, face advancement rate, number of gob wells in a panel, and geologic columns. Extensive finite element analyses were performed to estimate the characteristics of the emission zone in an attempt to corroborate these findings. This paper describes an investigation for developing correlations between the geomechanical behavior of the methane emission zone with methane production.

Jan 1, 1996

By G. Machiavelli, P. Bevilacqua, G. Ferrara, T. P. Meloy

During several years of operation in Europe, South Africa and other locations, the Tri-Flo process has demonstrated substantial improvements in dense-medium dynamic-separation systems. The reasons for this improvement are: • a high-sharpness separation due to the multistage system and the application of new concepts in the design of the regeneration circuit and in the control of the medium Theology, and • the possibility of performing two cuts at different densities using a single separation device and a single regeneration circuit. This paper discusses the above points in detail with particular reference to the multistage technology (based on the circuit analysis theory) and to the control of the medium rheology (based on recent work in the modeling and simulation of the rheological behavior of dense suspensions). Concerning the multidensity separation, information is given on the new three-stage separator where the high-density separation is performed by the first stage and the low-density separation is performed by the second and third stages. This configuration (already realized in two operating plants) was selected because no particular sharpness was required at the high-density separation, while high sharpness was required at the low-density separation. However, the configuration can be inverted or a fourth stage can be added (at very low additional cost) to provide two stages for each separating density. The importance of achieving a high sharpness separation is related to minerals (industrial minerals in particular) where the density difference of the phases to be separated is very low (as in processing of lithium ores, feldspar- and others). Information is provided on plants operating in South Africa and Canada, for the beneficiation of lithium minerals and on a plant under construction in Italy for the beneficiation of feldspar. Finally, the importance of making the separation at two densities is emphasized with particular reference to coal; i.e., producing a low-ash premium coal and recovering, in the middling, a by-product without losing heating value. Also, very important for some minerals is the production of a high-grade concentrate (at the first stage) suitable for sending directly to metallurgy (e.g., chromite ores) and the production of a low-grade concentrate that can be further treated. In this way, a higher overall recovery of the valuable mineral can be achieved, and, at the same time, a reduction of the treatment costs can be obtained. All of the above applications were once considered impossible.

Jan 1, 1995

By David H. Dahlem

Uranium is a very mobile element geochemically and is widely dispersed in the lithosphere and hydrosphere. Under oxidizing conditions, it is particularly widespread and appears in all parts of the surface hydrologic system. As a result, this system is a leading candidate in uranium-resource assessments as a new base from which total resources might be estimated. No other sampling system provides the large volume geochemical capture as the continental hydrosphere and is as pervasive and non-selective regardless of rock type. However, the water system as a uranium metal sampler is not without drawbacks as the development of a National sampling program based on it has shown, In spring 1973, the National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) was announced by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). The program was conceived to provide an evaluation of the domestic uranium resources and to identify areas favorable for uranium exploration. The specific NURE objectives are as follows (Bowyer, 1974): 1. To provide a preliminary evaluation of domestic resources and favorable exploration areas by early 1976, based on existing data. 2. To conduct a comprehensive evaluation of domestic resources and favorable areas by 1980, based on advanced state-of-the-art information. 3. To conduct an R&D program into new and improved procedures, equipment, and technology for uranium exploration and assessment. 4. To disseminate information on new exploration concepts and technology.

Jan 1, 1976

By M. Boucraut

The authors investigate the influence of the basicity index CaO / Si02 on the sintering properties of hematite ore mixtures. The experimentation was performed with three different mixtures of ores from Tazadit, Nimba, Mano-River, Itabira, Marcona, Goa, Mapawa and Cassinga. Increasing the basicity index CaO / Si02 between 0.1 and 3, chiefly through limestone admixture makes possible to reduce the thermal consumption of sintering and to improve the physical and chemical properties of the sinter. In the case of a plant using hematite ores, it seems interesting to produce an hyperbasic sinter and to complete the blast furnace burden with calibrated ore or acid pellets.

Jan 1, 1968

By F. Woller

The territory of Czechoslovakia is well endowed in deposits of a variety of industrial minerals. At present, 29 different types of industrial minerals are mined from some 600 individual deposits in Bohemia and Moravia only. About half of those production centres involves structural materials like aggregate and common brick clays and loams. A significant proportion of industrial minerals produced in Czechoslovakia are exported. Destinations of main products are shown in Figure 1. Production of industrial minerals in Czechoslovakia has a long history. Glass has been produced since the 14th century, sulphuric acid since 1578, graphite since 1750, and chinaware since 1790, to name just a few; but most of the present production comes from deposits developed during the past forty years. For a variety of reasons, only about 30 per cent of registered and explored industrial minerals deposits in the country are in production (Table 1). Two of the reasons may be the complexity of processing or conflicting interests of parties involved, but lack of market research, investment funds, or processing capacity have also had an impact on the level of utilization of the resource base.

Jan 1, 1992

By Carrie Smith

Along Michigan’s Upper Peninsula lies the Marquette Iron Range, home to iron mines. Just southeast of the region is the small town of Iron River, where Mary Korpi spent most of her chidhood and early adulthood. Though living in the heart of mining country, the industry did not pique her interest while growing up. As the daughter of two educators, she envisioned a different future for herself. Now, decades after working for one of the largest gold companies, she is gearing up for her term as the Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration’s 2026 President.

Mar 1, 2026

By George E. Summers

A salt dome appears to provide the basic medium requirements for the excavation of the 315 foot diameter, unsupported spherical cavity at a depth of 2700 feet required by the AEC in a proposed "decoupling" experiment. Tatum Salt Dome was a natural choice for a site because more geological and hydrological information has been accumulated on Tatum than any other salt dome on the Gulf Coast. The Tatum Dome is a mile in diameter, roughly flat topped, nearly cylindrical in shape and has some overhang at the top. The salt stock has nearly vertical layering of alternating bands of salt and anhydrite. In the vicinity of the dome, adequate fresh water for solution mining is available in surface streams and in subsurface aquifers. A saline aquifer is available for brine disposal. A tentative cavity location was selected near the center of the dome which meets the design criteria established by the AEC.

Jan 1, 1968