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By L. L. McMurray

ILMENITE is the most important raw material for manufacture of titanium dioxide.1 Industrially, several other products are made from ilmenite, the most important of which are: ferrotitanium, ferro carbon-titanium, copper-titanium, titanium carbide and titanium nitride. The production of titanium metal is still in the laboratory stage because of the difficulty of extraction and as yet no important application for the metal has been found. Ilmenite has received considerable attention as an industrial raw material. Imports of ilmenite concentrates for the first nine months of 1941 were 156,737 short tons, the chief source being Travancore, India.2 Domestic production of ilmenite has here-tofore been confined to Amherst and Nelson Counties, Virginia, where a complex rutile, ilmenite, and apatite ore is mined and treated to utilize all three of these minerals. A recent report3 has described development of the large titaniferous magnetite ore body at Tahawas, New York, where it is expected that 800 tons of ilmenite concentrates, containing 48 per cent Ti02 will be produced daily. Additional domestic production is expected from a large ilmenite deposit recently opened in Caldwell County, North Carolina. Flotation tests indicate that a high-grade concentrate containing 53 per cent Ti02 can be made from the North Carolina ore. Prospecting of domestic ores in other areas has been reported.4 It appears that increased domestic production of ilmenite may well save considerable shipping space so vitally needed in these times. The composition and chemical structure of pure ilmenite is given by Dana as: FeO, TiO2; Ti, 31.6 per cent, Fe, 36.8 per cent, 02, 31.6 per cent. This composition is variable in that some iron or titanium may be replaced, giving a variable iron-titanium ratio. As an example, the iron-titanium weight ratio of ilmenite in Caldwell County, North Carolina, has been determined to be 0.94 (using 97.1 per cent ilmenite concentrate obtained by heavy liquids on minus 150-mesh ore) compared with theoretical 1.16. No rutile was noted in this ore to account for the low value. This North Carolina ore is free of magnetite, which is a common associate of ilmenite ores. In view of a large potential production from North Carolina, the Tennessee Valley Authority conducted a study of methods of concentration of that ore, of which the results are reported herein. THE ORE Five samples of ore were taken from the deposit at various exposed locations and were mixed for the study and testing. An attempt was made to proportion the amount of weathered and unweathered portions in making the composite sample, so as to approximate actual operating conditions. An examination of representative specimens of the sample showed the following general facts: I. The black mineral comprising nearly 70 per cent of the ore is ilmenite.

Jan 1, 1944

The production of bituminous coal in Pennsylvania started a few years after that in Virginia. For forty-five years all the production came from the Pittsburgh bed, and since that time its total output in value has exceeded that of any other single mineral deposit in the world. It has been impossible to separate the outputs of the four counties producing it at that time, as none of it came from Greene County until many years later, and the figures in the first column of Table 49 represent all the coal coming from Allegheny, Fayette, Washington and Westmoreland Counties. The years prior to 1790 are grouped on account of space limitations, they were made in the same manner as the later ones. All outputs have been rounded into hundreds, or thousands of tons because their accuracy does not warrant further subdivision. All figures are net tons, and all represent production and not shipments; this distinction in the early days when transportation facilities were scarce meant a great deal. In the period 1820-1835, more coal was used in salt-making in western Pennsylvania than for any other single purpose, but not a ton of such coal was handled by any transport agency. Later the iron industry used large quantities of local coal without shipment, and other instances can be cited. Prior to 1832, the only means of shipment of coal, excepting by wagons, was by the rivers, and this tonnage was larger than is generally believed. In Table 23, all of the available data about production from the Pittsburgh bed have been shown. After 1844 the river shipments above Pittsburgh are accurately reported by the Monongahela Navigation Company, but its figures do not include tonnage loaded on the river below Dam No. 1, nor that brought down Saw Mill Run. Prior to 1844 no tonnage records were kept although the amount moved was considerable. The information about local production, not shipped, whether used domestically or for manufacturing is necessarily incomplete. Column 7, shipments by railroad, river and canal, includes the figures in column 4, and until at least 1857 are quite evidently too low. The figures in column 9 are largely estimates based on the data shown and prior to 1870, and perhaps later, are much more likely to be lower, rather than higher, than the actual ones. This table was prepared over a period of years, and as additional data were found the revisions necessary were almost always upward. Clearfield County was the next producer in the state, shipments-in small amounts going down the Susquehanna River; some were made later via the West Branch Canal. Railroad facilities became available in 1862, and the growth in production increased rapidly and steadily. All available data and the estimated totals are in Table 24. Butler County began mining a few years after Clearfield, the early output

Jan 1, 1942

By L. L. McMurray

Ilmenite is the most important raw material for manufacture of titanium dioxide.' Industrially, several other products are made from ilmenite, the most important of which are: ferro titanium, ferro carbon-titanium, copper-titanium, titanium carbide and titanium nitride. The production of titanium metal is still in the laboratory stage because of the difficulty of extraction and as yet no important application for the metal has been found. Ilmenite has received considerable attention as an industrial raw material. Imports of ilmenite concentrates for the first nine months of 1941 were 156,737 short tons, the chief source being Travancore, India.2 Domestic produttion of ilmenite has heretofore been confined to Amherst and Nelson Counties, Virginia, where a complex rutile, ilmenite, and apatite ore is mined and treated to utilize all three of these minerals. A recent report3 has described development of the large titaniferous magnetite ore body at Tahawas, New York, where it is expected that 800 tons of ilmenite concentrates, containing 48 per cent TiO2 will be produced daily. Additional domestic production is expected from a large ilmenite deposit recently opened in caldwell county, North carolina. Flotation tests indicate that a high-grade concentrate containing 53 per cent TiO2 can be made from the North Carolina ore. Prospecting of domestic ores in other areas has been reported.' It appears that increased domestic production of ilmenite may well save considerable shipping space so vitally needed in these times. The composition and chemical structure of pure ilmenite is given by Dana as: FeO, TiO2; Ti, 31.6 per cent, Fe, 36.8 per cent, O2, 31.6 per cent. This composition is variable in that some iron or titanium may be replaced, giving a variable iron-titanium ratio. As an example, the iron-titanium weight ratio of ilmenite in Caldwell County, North Carolina, has been determined to be 0.94 (using 97.1 per cent ilmenite concentrate obtained by heavy liquids on minus Iso-mesh ore) compared with theoretical 1.16. No rutile was noted in this ore to account for the low value. This North Carolina ore is free of magnetite, which is a common associate of ilmenite ores. In view of a large potential production from North Carolina, the Tennessee Valley Authority conducted a study of methods of concentration of that ore, of which the results are reported herein. The Ore Five samples of Ore were taken from the deposit at various exposed locations and were mixed for the study and testing. An attempt was made to proportion the amount of weathered and unweathered portions in making the composite sample, so as to approximate actual operating conditions. An examination of representative specimens of the sample showed the following general facts: 1. The black mineral comprising nearly 70 per cent of the ore is ilmenite.

Jan 1, 1948

By Benjamin L. Miller

The essential differences expressed by the different speakers participating in this symposium concern merely the relative emphasis placed on the subjects that are commonly included under the term "geophysics" and the branches of science that form the basis for investigations in this field. In order to appreciate the present situation it may be profitable to briefly refer to a few historical matters. One can find almost countless descriptions of geological phenomena long antedating the introduction of the title of "geology," which has been credited to Richard de Bury in the fourteenth century. Interpretations, when they were offered, were generally pure speculation. Only toward the close of the eighteenth century do we find theories developed as the result of observations and tested by additional observations. It is difficult to select and give proper credit to the individual who was particularly responsible for turning geology into a distinctly observational science. william Smith, who has been called the "Father of English Geology," certainly represents the period when observation was the only method used. As he traveled through the British Isles, "sometimes 10,000 miles in a year," he was continually making notes of his observations. Geikie says: "His plain, solid, matter of fact intellect never branched into theory or speculation, but occupied itself wholly in the observation of facts." William Smith, with others of his time, definitely laid firmly the foundations on which modern geology has been built. Field and laboratory observations can no longer be said to constitute the sole basis for geologic contributions but we have not laid aside the methods of Smith and his followers. It is folly to underestimate the fundamental value of the observational part of geology in the present. The objection to purely observational geology is that it is mainly qualitative and not quantitative, general and not specific. No one can deny this charge and probably there are few who do not welcome every method or process whereby we can put aside generalities for definite established values. Physics is the science that has particularly come to the aid of the geologist in this respect. Contributions of PhYsics It is not the intent of the writer to enumerate or to evaluate all of the contributions to geologic advance in the field of. physics. A few only are used for the purpose of illustration, When Clarence King, Director of the United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, invited Ferdinand Zirkel to study 2500 thin sections of rocks collected from the western United States, the use of the microscope came into general use. Zirkel's report was published in 1876. He was not the first to use transmitted light for microscopic rock determination, some work having been done by Henry Clifton Sorby and others some years earlier, but he was the first to put into general use this method. We may well daim that this

Jan 1, 1946

By William A. Johnson

The fundamental role of diffusion in many reactions occurring in solid metals has long been recognized, and there have been careful measurements of rates of diffusion in numerous alloy systems; but our understanding of the atomic mechanism by which diffusion occurs is scarcely in an advanced state.l-3 It is doubtful that this mechanism can ever be directly ascertained; rather, all imaginable mechanisms must be examined and the one that is in best accord with such data as can be obtained from suitably chosen experiments should be selected. Because of its relative simplicity, diffusion in a system containing only one kind of atomic species—commody called self-diffusion—is of considerable theoretical interest. It may be expected that diffusion theory will not be advanced appreciably until a wide variety of diffusion experiments—of which diffusion in a chemical concentration gradient and self-diffusion are two important types—are carefully performed and inter-compared. Aside from the purely theoretical interest in self-diffusion measurements, such studies will be of considerable engineering importance. The rate of any process in a pure metal requiring the movement of atoms, of which recrystallization and creep are two familiar examples, will be understood more readily with the aid of self-diffusion data.† Self-diffusion implies the diffusion of something into its exact counterpart; the detection of such a process is patently impossible, and it is necessary to substitute for it the diffusion of one isotope (in this case radioactive) into another isotope (in this case stable) of the same chemical element. There is, however, no reason to suppose that a radioactive atom will not diffuse at the same rate as its stable isotope, for all of the isotopes of the same element have exactly the same chemical properties; neither the difference in nuclear energy nor the difference in mass would be expected to exercise an important influence in this phenomenon. In this sense, self-diffusion may be thought of as the diffusion of radioactive atoms down a radioactivity concentration gradient, just as usual diffusion is the diffusion of one kind of atom down its chemical concentration gradient. The first measurements of self-difiusion were made by von Hevesy4-6 using the radioactive lead isotope thorium B in ordinary lead. The recent development of means for producing artificial radioactive elements has made possible similar measurements on gold,7, 8 copper,2, 9 and zinc.10, 11 Many of the data that have been obtained are rather poor, and no adequate reason has been given for their poorness; it appears, however, that the unsatisfactory results are characteristic of the particular experimental procedure employed, and not of self-diffusion measurements in themselves. The experimental technique that has yielded the poorer results is the deposition of a thin layer of radioactive atoms on the surface of a specimen and the determination of the rate of inward diffusion

Jan 1, 1941

By Richard M. Foose

MOST of the roofing granules produced in Pennsylvania are made by two companies at three plants. The Advance Industrial Supply Co. has three quarries and a mill at Gladhill Station, in southern Adams County. The Funkhouser Company is actively engaged in mining, quarrying and milling at Charmian, about one mile west of Gladhill Station, and at Delta, in southern York County. These three plants produced approximately 100,000 short tons of granules in 1943. The production of roofing granules in 1937 for the whole country was only about 500,000 tons, generally indicating the large growth of the industry since that time. The fundamentals of producing roofing granules were discussed comprehensively by G. W. Josephson in a paper before the Industrial Minerals Division in October 1943 (Mining Technology, March 1944). The purpose of this paper is to describe the actual methods of mining the rock and milling it to make roofing granules, as practiced by the three Pennsylvania plants. MINING AND MILLING Funkhouser Company (Delta) The Funkhouser Company, near Delta, in southern York County, Pennsylvania, operates three joined quarries and a mine in the Peach Bottom slate. The joined quarries extend 1200 ft. in a northeast southwest direction along the strike of the slate cleavage and are about 200 ft. wide. The working face is about 45 ft. high. The quarrying operation is rather simple: Ingersoll-Rand Jackhamers, 1-in. and 1 1/4-in., with hollow drill steel, are used to undercut the quarry face with10-ft. holes. The face is "blown" and allowed to slump on the quarry floor. Loaded by a Marion electric shovel into trucks, the shattered rock is taken to the primary crusher 2500 ft. away. In addition to the normal quarrying operations, a drift into the northeast wall of the middle quarry was begun about 1935 and has advanced about 2000 ft. since then. Rooms have been driven at angles to the drift along choice beds of slate. The drifts and rooms have a roof more than 35 ft. high and the main drift and rooms are all more than 40 ft. wide. There is no cribbing at any place in the mine. Several of the rooms were driven upward on a 5º slope and in some of them there was stoping. Ingersoll-Rand Jackhamers are used, and only wet drilling is practiced. When visited in January 1940, an electric shovel was operating at the head of the drift, scooping up the slate blasted out of the working face. This, too, is trucked to the primary crusher. Some of the better quality slate is saved for making slate shingles. The primary crusher, which is a No. 30 McCulley gyratory, receives the slate from the trucks and crushes it to about 2-in. size (Fig. I). This product travels by a 30-in. belt conveyor to Niagara vibrating screens with 2-in. holes. The minus 2-in. product moves to a storage silo by bucket

Jan 1, 1945

By Reed W. Hyde

Some information has been published on the sulphur dioxide concentration of gases from D wight-Lloyd machines sintering lead ores but most of this relates to the customary practice in which the charge is relatively high in lead and is sintered in two passes Over the machine. It is thought, therefore, that the following observations on sintering in one pass a low-lead, low-sulphur charge may be of interest. The data were obtained in sintering lead sulphide notation concentrates mixed with minus 20.mesh oxide ore, the mixture carrying 16,8 per cent Pb and 5.3 per cent S. No returns were used because of the limited amount of sulphur available as fuel, but the mixture pelletized readily. to make a satisfactorily permeable bed on the sintering machine. As there was a possibility that the SO z might be utilized, a series of runs was made to determine the concentration ofSO2 in the gases at different points along the wind box, and the effect on this concentration of changes in the wind-box vacuum. Several runs each were made with vacuums (as measured in inches of water at the wind box) of (1 2 to 1 in., ('1 4 to 3% in. and (3) 6 to 5% in. The averages of the determinations from each series are platted On the graph (Fig, 1). The vertical scale shows the percentage by volume of SOz (as determined by the Reich method), and the horizontal scale shows the time e~pressed as percentage of the total sintering time. Sintering was considered to be complete when no SOz could be detected in the gases. In all cases the depth of bed was 4 1/2 in. and the weight of dry charge per square foot of hearth area was 45.2 lb. Other data are given in the table. The volume of gases corresponding to the several points along the wind box at which SO2 determinations were made could not be measured, but has been calculated from the SO2 Content and sulphur elimination on the assumption that the volume is uniform throughout the sintering period. This is not strictly true, as with a given vacuum the volume usually will drop slightly toward the middle of the period and increase toward the end. However, this made is a reasonable approximation. several interesting features are brought out by these data. In general, the published data on SO 2 concentration in sintering under ordinary conditions show a high SO2 concentration in the early stages followed by a rapid decrease in concentration and with relatively little SOz in the gases from the last half or third of the operation. In other words, the greater part of the sulphur elimination is obtained in the first third or half of the period. In these runs, the 6-in. vacuum, which approximates the usual operating condition, gives a curve that follows this customary pattern. Maximum SO2 concentration is obtained 234 min. after

Jan 1, 1944

By B. L. Averbach

THE rolling process may be considered as a case of a nonhomogeneous plastic flow. In such a heterogeneous deformation there is no direct general solution, and the plastic deformation varies from point to point as a function of the coordinates. It is practicable to determine these plastic strains only at the conclusion of the rolling process, and the local strains can be studied by observing the deformations produced in a suitably placed grid system. Strains at the surface of a bar after rolling have been reported by MacGregor and Coffin,' but the strain distributions within the bar have not been previously observed. Siebel² has investigated the plastic deformations resulting from wire-drawing by splitting the wire along its axis, milling a grid coordinate system on the inner plane surfaces, and binding the .wire together so that it would pull through a die as a single unit. This method was possible because of the rotational symmetry of the die. In the rolling process, however, such a system was not readily applicable. This paper describes another method of including a grid system, and reports some preliminary data on the plastic rolling strains within a square bar. Experimental Procedure 2.1 mm wide (144 network squares per sq in.) was punched from a thin lead sheet with a steel die and supported in a brass mold by thin copper wires. Pure tin was then poured around the grid to form a solid bar, with the network securely imbedded at. a given position. This bar was then machined to a square 15.2 mm (0.60 in.) wide, and then radiographed. The lead grid was quite adherent and sufficiently ductile to follow the deformation of the bar faithfully. The network lines also remained sharp enough to maintain a high radiographic contrast, and the tin bar, with the grid included, could withstand considerable deformation at room temperature without splitting at the interface. In order to fill the mold, it was necessary to cast the tin at 260-280°C and during pouring the lead grid was supported at short intervals to prevent warping. Some shrinkage cavities were encountered, but only bars which were free of shrinkage in the network region were used. This method is similar to the one employed by Steinberg" in an investigation of the strain distribution in a tensile specimen. Before rolling, the machined bars were radiographed in two directions to obtain accurate initial dimensions of each square and to observe whether the grid was straight and correctly positioned. The rolling was performed in a small hand mill with 2 in. diam rolls at room temperature, and a 20 pct reduction based on the original height was employed. The rolls were clean and no lubricant was used. Halfway through the bar, at the center of the network, the rolls were reversed and the bar extracted. These bars were then radiographed again

Jan 1, 1951

Discussion of the paper of G. P. Hulst, presented at the Salt Lake meeting, August, 1914, and printed in Bulletin No. 92, August, 1914, pp. 1865 to 1871. L. S. AUSTIN, Salt Lake City, Utah.-One question that I would like to ask is in regard to the sampling kettle which stands beside the softening furnace. How is the sample taken or melted? G. P. HULST.-The sampling kettles in question are of 45 tons capacity and are fired with coal. The lead bullion comes in on a high line in car-load lots of 30 to 40 tons. The entire lot is trucked from car, weighed over scales and thrown into the sampling kettle, which has been previously cleaned. The kettle is fired and the bullion melted, then heated up until no frozen bullion' remains in the .bottom or adheres to the sides of the kettle. The kettle is scraped clean, sides and bottom, and the wet dross is skimmed Doff clean into molds. The kettle is stirred thoroughly during the period in which 24 to 30 samples of approximately ½ assay ton are taken. These samples are taken in a long-hand loci iron mold, providing for taking six to eight "gumdrops." The mold is inserted and heated to the same temperature as the molten metal, and gumdrops are clipped out and cooled in the mold by dipping 'the bottom of. the mold into Water. The samples should be free from fins. The gumdrops represent the contents of the kettle, and in assaying, they should not be clipped, but weighed up and the result computed. The dross bars are weighed and sawed according to old hammer and punch sample template. The sawdust represents a sample of the dross. In eases of high gold in the bullion there is a slight correction in the assay. This method of sampling was developed at the Omaha plant of the American Smelting & Refining Co., W. T.. Page, Manager, in 1903 or 1904, for adjusting differences in checking smelter sampling. L. S. AUSTIN.-The base bullion which you treat is very clean. It has been remelted, and skimmed before shipment. How rapidly can you get it through the softening furnace, and how does it compare with ordinary base bullion? G. P. HULST.-Twenty-four hours is the softening limit on these charges. In other words, it is charged into the furnace, heated up, and the first and second skimmings are taken off, and it goes into the kettle the next day; that is, 24 hr. elapse from the time the bullion is charged to the time it is in the kettle. L. S. AUSTIN.-It seems to be a long time to hold such a pure bullion. I suppose, though, it comes around conveniently so that you have a time for all the other operations of refining. Isn't that the case? MR. HULST.-Every refinery is based on those principles.

Jan 11, 1914

By L. L. McMurray

Ilmenite is the most important raw material for manufacture of titanium dioxide.' Industrially, several other products are made from ilmenite, the most important of which are: ferro titanium, ferro carbon-titanium, copper-titanium, titanium carbide and titanium nitride. The production of titanium metal is still in the laboratory stage because of the difficulty of extraction and as yet no important application for the metal has been found. Ilmenite has received considerable attention as an industrial raw material. Imports of ilmenite concentrates for the first nine months of 1941 were 156,737 short tons, the chief source being Travancore, India.2 Domestic produttion of ilmenite has heretofore been confined to Amherst and Nelson Counties, Virginia, where a complex rutile, ilmenite, and apatite ore is mined and treated to utilize all three of these minerals. A recent report3 has described development of the large titaniferous magnetite ore body at Tahawas, New York, where it is expected that 800 tons of ilmenite concentrates, containing 48 per cent TiO2 will be produced daily. Additional domestic production is expected from a large ilmenite deposit recently opened in caldwell county, North carolina. Flotation tests indicate that a high-grade concentrate containing 53 per cent TiO2 can be made from the North Carolina ore. Prospecting of domestic ores in other areas has been reported.' It appears that increased domestic production of ilmenite may well save considerable shipping space so vitally needed in these times. The composition and chemical structure of pure ilmenite is given by Dana as: FeO, TiO2; Ti, 31.6 per cent, Fe, 36.8 per cent, O2, 31.6 per cent. This composition is variable in that some iron or titanium may be replaced, giving a variable iron-titanium ratio. As an example, the iron-titanium weight ratio of ilmenite in Caldwell County, North Carolina, has been determined to be 0.94 (using 97.1 per cent ilmenite concentrate obtained by heavy liquids on minus Iso-mesh ore) compared with theoretical 1.16. No rutile was noted in this ore to account for the low value. This North Carolina ore is free of magnetite, which is a common associate of ilmenite ores. In view of a large potential production from North Carolina, the Tennessee Valley Authority conducted a study of methods of concentration of that ore, of which the results are reported herein. The Ore Five samples of Ore were taken from the deposit at various exposed locations and were mixed for the study and testing. An attempt was made to proportion the amount of weathered and unweathered portions in making the composite sample, so as to approximate actual operating conditions. An examination of representative specimens of the sample showed the following general facts: 1. The black mineral comprising nearly 70 per cent of the ore is ilmenite.

Jan 1, 1948

By William H. Spice

The fault zone of south central Texas showed renewed activity during I940 along a trend roughly paralleling the old established Balcones fault-line group of producing fields. This was a result of the new discoveries in the Wilcox (Eocene) formation in southeastern Texas and Louisiana. As of the end of the year, one new field producing from the Wilcox formation had been discovered on the Washburn ranch in La Salle County, along the southwestern limits of the district, and several projected tests into that formation were under way. In the western part of the district, par-titularly in the part of the Rio Grande embayment that is in Dimmit, Webb and Zavala Counties, there has been renewed leasing activity with the shallower sands in the Navarro-Taylor formations (Upper Cretaceous) as the objective in several projected tests for the early part of 1941. Three new fields have been discovered along the old fault-line trend, but these have been comparatively small, producing either from Dale lime, Austin chalk or Buda lime. No new fields were discovered during the Year in the Edwards (Lower Cretaceous) lime horizon. Approximately 260 wells were drilled in the district during 1940, which resulted in four new oil fields. Twenty-seven new wells were completed in the Proven Edwards lime fields of Darst Creek, Luling and Salt Flat and seven were added to production in the Pearsall field. Approximately 160 wells in 18 counties were completed as failures during the year. The district produced 7,659,634 bbl. during 1940, which was a 9 per cent decrease under production for 1939. In all, 3559 wells were producing at the end of I940, compared with 3562 wells producing at the end of the previous year; 104 new producing wells were completed and 163 wells were abandoned in the producing fields of the district. During 1940 considerable exploratory work was carried on along the Wilcox trend within the district, particularly by major companies employing various types of geophysical methods, and leasing activity increased considerably. At the end of the year, the total number of acres of nonproducing leases held by major companies in the district increased about 10 per cent. It is anticipated that this activity will continue into the first part of 1941 and will be supplemented by several exploratory test wells. New Fields B,, Creek, Caldwett County.— . R. Ogden NO. 2 Talley, discovery well of the Bee Creek field, in the northeastern part of Caldwell County, was completed on March 16, I940, in Dale lime from 2091 to 2238 ft., pumping 85 bbl. per day, 39° A.P.1. gravity. The discovery of this field can be credited to a combination of subsurface geology and magnetometer work, which indicated the presence of a serpentine intrusion. At the end of the year, ,3 producing oil wells had been completed and the field has produced a total of 47,050 barrels.

Jan 1, 1941

By Louis Ware

At the beginning of the present war, the United States faced the need to multiply its production of magnesium metal almost roo times within the shortest possible period. Urgently needed for construction of military aircraft, incendiary bombs, and other war uses, magnesium was at the top of the list of critical war materials. Up to that time only one Producer, employing Only One process and using One raw material in a single plant, represented this country's entire Production capacity. It was immediately desirable to plan a numher of plants located strategically over the Count'Y and to expand an industry more rapidly and to a greater extent than ever before had been attempted in so short a time. In '939 this American producer, the Dow Chemical .9 was making about 7 million Pounds of magnesium metal. It utilized as a raw material brine containing magnesium chloride, which was pumped from wells in Michigan. The logical ap-preach to certain increased production was to employ the same process on the same raw material in other sections of the United States. In Europe and other countries, different processes had been used and different raw materials were being utilized, but all of the skill and knowledge for production in this country was that of using the Dow type of cell and magnesium chloride as a raw material. The Government was testing other processes, but none then had been proved commercially feasible. Development OF New Process The International Minerals and Chemical Corporation had available a large quantity of magnesium ,chloride at Carls-bad, New Mexico, contained in the end liquor produced from its potash plant sillce the buildng of the plant in 1941 It was the only company mining commercially a magnesium ore and having anything like this quantity of magnesium chloride liquor. The magnesium ore, langbeinite, was being mined from the 800-ft. level for its content of potassium sulphate. This ore, a potassium magnesium sulphate, was reacted in a base exchange plant with potassium chloride to produce potassium sulphate, the discharge liquor having a high content of magnesium chloride. Three potash-producing companies are in the Carlsbad area, but only International has developed and is commercially producing the potash-magnesium ores. The lower, or No. 4, veil, in that area is potassium chloride ore, and is continuous through all the properties. The langbeinite, or No. 2, vein is minable at the International property, but occurs sparsely, if - at in other areas being mined in that vicinity. It is understood that most of the mag. nesium produced] by Germany comes from magnesium and magnesium-potassium ores obtained from potash mines. It was logical for International to pro-pose to make available this magnesium material and to offer its technical staff to design, construct and manage a magnesium plant for the account of the Government. The plan that finally was adopted by the

Jan 1, 1944

By E. J. Pasierb, H. W. Paxton

Mavkers ill a diffusion couple in the iron-chromium system move towards the high chromium side indicating Dcr > DFe at the marker composition. By a combituztion of measurements of D& and D a: a function of composition, this is also shown independently. DFe is calculated as a function of composition. and shown to be in reasonable agreement with measured values by other workers. MEASUREMENTS of marker movements in diffusion couples have been used from time to time to demonstrate that a vacancy or interstitial mechanism may be operative. Since there is a possibility that ring diffusion1 may be operative in chromium, the present experiments are of interest in showing some non-ring mechanism in iron-chromium alloys around the equiatomic composition. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The movement of markers originally at the interface between 1-in. sq sections of pure Cr (6 mm thick) and outer slabs of 30 Cr-70 Fe alloy was followed as a function of time at temperatures from 1150" to 1425"C, in a Kanthal-wound furnace. Temperature control was +5°C over extended periods. The analyses of these alloys are given in Table I. Selection of suitable markers presented a considerable experimental problem; the eventual solution was to draw quartz rod down to 0.01 cm and seat this in V-grooves 0.01 cm deep on each side of the chromium prior to welding. A preliminary experiment in which the groove was machined in the alloy gave identical results. Welding was accomplished by passing a heavy current through specimens under moderate pressure in a helium atmosphere. This method produced good welds with a planar interface as shown by subsequent metallo-graphic investigation. Any markers which did not adequately fill their groove and showed subsequent contamination from the atmosphere during heat treatment were not considered reliable. The composite sample was ground and metal-lographically polished on the four sides perpendicular to the interface. Fiducial marks (deep milled slots) were made outside the diffusion zone to check on total volume change. All necessary measurements were made on a metallograph reading to +0.0005 cm. The samples were wrapped in tantalum foil and given diffusion anneals for times to 200 hr in carefully purified dry hydrogen in a sealed McDanel porcelain tube. Chromium-zirconium chips were introduced near the specimen as an additional getter. The specimens were cooled relatively slowly after the diffusion anneal to preserve the McDanel tube but no significant error in effective time at temperature was thereby introduced. At least 1 mm was ground off the surface before measurements were taken. It was observed that the grain size following short diffusion anneals was several mm and was appreciably larger in the 30 Cr alloy than in the pure Cr. No significant grain boundary penetration was present as indicated by the etch limit. The results are presented in the next section. Measurements of D were made by standard sectioning techniques with chemical analysis. Machining difficulties limited the

Jan 1, 1961

The Enquirer of October 13, 1835 carried a letter signed "G," calling attention to the great number of Virginians who were leaving the state and to the lack of enterprise shown in not developing the ample natural resources available. He mentioned coal in particular and in closing said: "Besides the coal mines owned by individuals, the Black Heath company of colliers are carrying on extensive operations. Owing to the derangement of the currency, and the immense expenses incurred in boring and sinking new shafts, I understand that their dividends have not yet been so large, as they may be confidently expected in future.-Another company, under the title of the Midlothian Coal Mining Company, is now about being organized by the Messrs. Wooldridges of Chesterfield, for the purpose of establishing an extensive coal business. Having examined the lands embraced in the charter and the principles upon which the company is designed to be organized, I am persuaded that more productive stock can no where be found. The charter embraces a space nearly equal to a mile square, adjoining the mines of the Black Heath company, those of Mr. N. Mills, and those of Stone Henge, which space must contain coal of great thickness of excellent quality, as the strata of coal of those other mines pass through it; exhibiting a field so extensive, that centuries may elapse before it is exhausted. A shaft has been sunk on these lands, from which a very large quantity of the best coal is being raised. The terms of the charter require the Proprietors to sell one-half of these lands and mines, from the sale of which they will appropriate $100,000 as permanent capital, to purchase hands and engines, and to sink other shafts to work the property and thus going into operation with such decided advantages, as to produce a profit as great as a reasonable man should desire. Here is an opportunity for investing capital, which I think should satisfy the wishes of many Virginians who speak of emigrating. Will they not embrace it?-I have confined my remarks to the coal mines, because they are in the heart of our State, and their operations are familiar to many who can verify the statements. I might extend them to the other mineral treasures of our State; but if I do so, they must be reserved for another number, this being longer than I intended, and perhaps longer than you can conveniently find room for in your crowded columns. G." In January 1828 the Tuckahoe Canal Company was authorized to construct a canal along Tuckahoe Creek, from the James River up the stream about five miles; later this was amended to allow the use of the stream with a depth of water of two feet, no tow path was required, or provided: A toll of one cent per bushel was collected and the canal company made large profits. The service was so poor that in December 18, 1835, John G.,

Jan 1, 1942

By M. C. Leverett, W. B. Lewis

The dynamic behavior of a multiple fluid system is completely describable in terms of driving forces and resistances to flow. The latter are proportional to the viscosity of the fluid under consideration and inversely proportional to a property of the system termed the " effective permeability " to that fluid, a property therefore defined by this relation. Since three phases are usually present in oil reservoirs, it is essential to know the effective permeabilities to the several fluid phases, and the relationship between the composition of the fluid in the pore space and that of the flowing stream, in order to handle satisfactorily certain problems of oil production. In this regard, there are many unknown factors and parameters, and many that can be evaluated only indirectly. However, it is expected that work along lines similar to this present undertaking will help materially in solving these problems. .. . . Previous workers in this field have investigated the two-phase systems, water-gas,' water-oil2 in unconsolidated sands, and water-gasg in consolidated sands. The extension of the study of the flow of heterogeneous fluid systems from two to three phases involved only slight changes in technique. The apparatus used in the present work, except for slight changes to be described, was that used by Leverett in his water-oil experiments.~ Correlation and interpretation of data were made by methods analogous to those used in two- phase work. The relative permeability to a phase—the effective permeability divided by the permeability of the system to a homogeneous fluid—was employed throughout in correlating the rate of flow of that phase with the composition of the pore space. Quantitative measurements of two independent physical properties of the system were required to determine the composition of the pore space. As in the two-phase work, the fraction of water was determined electrically, The gas fraction was determined by measuring changes in volume accompanying measured pressure changes. Suitable account was taken of the solubility of the gas in the liquid phases, and of the vapor pressure of the water phase. Since this work was exploratory in nature, no attempt was made to obtain highly accurate numerical results. Reasonable precision and reproducibility were sought. Experimental Procedure variables Considered.—Of the properties of the fluids, the oil viscosity is most likely in practice to vary widely. Variations in oil viscosity were therefore included in this work, but variations in other properties of the fluids are as yet unexplored. It appears unlikely that the normally encountered variations will produce significant changes. ~h~ observations were made at fairly high pressure gradients, no attempt being made to detect a variation of the relative permeabilities with pressure gradient. It should be pointed out also that since most of the data were taken on one sand size only, it call Only be assumed at present that changes in

Jan 1, 1941

By Jr. D. C. Williams, D. V. Carter

The four new oil-field discoveries made in the East and East Central Texas districts during 1941 were the East Long Lake field, Anderson County; Pickering field, Shelby County; Pleasant Grove field, Rusk County, and Tri-Cities field, Henderson County. The discovery of oil production in the Pettit lime of the Lower Glen Rose was made in the Groesbeck (Barron) field in Limestone County and the Willow Springs field in Gregg County. Important extensions were made to the Pittsburg field, in Camp County, the Chapel Hill field, in Smith County, and the Hawkins field, in Wood County. The Hawkins field was extended sufficiently to more than double the number of proved surface acres. As usual the East Texas field led the district in the number of completions for the year. The second most active field during the year was the Hawkins field, with 250 new wells completed. The third most active was the Long Lake field, in which 50 wells were completed. Approximately 964 wells were completed in the district during 1941. Production and Probation The district is credited with having produced 163,566,695 bbl. of oil and distillate during the year. This represents a decrease of 4 per cent from the 170,424,685 bbl. of oil and distillate produced during the preceding year. The production of 130,378,620 bbl. of oil and distillate from the East Texas field represents 79.7 per cent of the total production of the district; that is, 6.3 per cent less than the production for the year 1940, The district had an estimated basic daily allowable of 614,982 bbl. of oil on Dec. 31. Approximately 33 per cent of the state's annual production was produced in the district, compared with 34.9 per cent for 1940. Since the majority of the fields in this district are subject to proration, any change in the annual production is attributable largely to changes in proration schedules and number of shutdown days. Fields subject to shutdown days were closed in for 113 days during the year, with the exception of the East Texas field, which was shut down 111 days. An order was promulgated by the Oil and Gas Division of the Texas Railroad Commission for encouraging the disposal of salt water and reservoir-pressure maintenance in the East Texas field. Discoveries Tex Harvey Oil Company'sNo. I S. E. J. Cartmel was completed as the discovery well for the East Long Lake field, Anderson County. Production was found in the Woodbine sand, the horizon from which the Long Lake field produces. The Pickering field, Shelby County, secures its production from the Nacatoch sand, found at an approximate depth of 1510 ft., in A. E. McKiernan's No. I, Pickering Lumbering Co. This field is in an area near the state line in which a number of relatively unimportant and

Jan 1, 1942

By James R. I. Henagan, William O. Crego

The Mamou Field, located in Evangeline Parish, La., is an elongated anticlinal structure on the downthrown side of a major east-west fault with oil and gas production from the upper part of the Wilcox formation. Two main producing horizons occur at an approximate depth of 11,500 ft and have been designated the Morein sand and the Deshotels sand. The upper sand (Morein) had an original bottom-hole pressure of 6,788 psig, which is some 1,500 psi above the normal pressure for that depth. Oil production with high gas/oil ratios and fluid analyses giving high shrinkage factors prompted a study of the reservoir in its early stages. The results indicated a closed reservoir producing under solution gas drive with low expected ultimate oil recovery. The early study of the Wilcox formation and its contained hydrocarbons resulted in the presentation of the data to the Department of Conservation of the State of Louisiana. with suggestions for field rules and a request for permission to inject extraneous water into the Morein sand. The water injection plans eventually led to complete unitization of working and royalty interests, to the construction of a gasoline plant, and to a central tank battery installation for the field. Deshotels sand wells were reworked to the Morein sand, and the water injection system was installed and ready for continuous operation in the early part of 1949. The injection of water was started in time to arrest the bottom-hole pressure decline at or near the bubble-point pressure. This injection was calculated to increase the ultimate recovery and to conserve natural resources. Pressure maintenance, the extraction of LPG products, and the sale of residue gas (early 1950) represent an attempt to produce an oil field with utmost efficiency. INTRODUCTION The two principal Wilcox oil horizons in the Mamou Field are the Morein sand and the Deshotels sand, occurring at 11,500 ft and 11,700 ft subsea, respectively. Minor oil production has been encountered in Morein stringer sands. (Fig. 1.) This paper deals only with the Morein sand, which is blanket over the Mamou Field. It is, however, segmented by the northwest-southeast "E" fault as shown in Fig. 2. The west segment is the area involved in the water injection pressure maintenance program. To date the east segment has operated largely under the influence of a strong water drive. The paper presents (1) a brief history of field development, (2) a resumé of reservoir conditions which led to the decision to inject extraneous salt water into the principal producing horizon, and (3) a summary of reservoir analysis and performance. FIELD DEVELOPMENT The Mamou Field is located in Evangeline Parish, La. The discovery well (J. B. Morein No. 1, now Unit No. 5) was completed in December, 1945, after penetrating 200 ft into the Wilcox formation. Initial production from the Morein

Jan 1, 1951

By S. Fróes Abreu

The importation of liquid fuels in Brazil amounts to about 1,300,000 tons; 30 per cent of this total being gasoline for automobiles and airplanes. Statistics show an increasing consumption of gasoline notwithstanding the use, daily greater, of fuel alcohol, a domestic fuel of low cost in the producing areas. The Brazilian market for petroleum products has shown a tendency to grow as the country has steadily developed— expansion of the industries in the areas already developed, and also the recent occupation and population of new zones. The war has brought many difficulties to Brazil. It has limited the importation of petroleum products, which came mostly from the United States, Venezuela and Mexico. During the first days of the present crisis automobile and truck traffic was vastly curtailed; but the national activity in the production of more fuel alcohol, and principally in the development of producer gas, has done much to provide a solution for the transportation crisis threatened at the beginning of the gasoline shortage. Many thousands of cars and trucks in Brazil are now burning producer gas made from charcoal. Producer gas for automobiles has been improved by Brazilian engineers and many new types have appeared. - Production There is only one producing oil field in Brazil—the one in the State of Baia, near the Baia de Todos os Santos. The first producing oil well was drilled in Lobato in 1939 by the Federal Government following studies carried on in that area by Oscar Cordeiro, S. Froes Abreu, G. Paiva and J. Amarai. The field and laboratory work done by these men was published in 1936 in a paper entitled " ContribuicBes para a Geologiado Petroleo no Reconcavo (Baia)," which indicated the potentialities of the area as an oil producer. After the discovery of the first producing well, the Brazilian Government issued a decree establishing an area, 60 km. in radius, as a National Reservation. This first well was drilled in Lobato. In no other locality in Brazil is any petroleum produced. Although many wells have been drilled in the southern part of Brazil, on the northeastern coast and in the Amazon Basin, they yield nothing. Actual production is below 1000 bbl. daily. The producing area covers Itaparica Island, Candeias and Arath, Joanes Island and Lobato. Since very little geological information was available, especially about subsurface structure, it was necessary to drill several wildcats in order to collect the data essential in the choosing of good locations. The United Geophysical Co. was contracted to perform a geophysical survey to clear up the major problems concerning the oil deposits in the Reconcavo beds. The best wells in Reconcavo are on Itaparica Island, where the daily flow amounts to about zoo bbl.; in other sectors production is considerably lower and most of the wells are pumping. In the Aratfi sector, near an area of very light oil, there is an important gas field, with wells producing about I0,000,000 cu. ft. daily.

Jan 1, 1944

By R. A. Nadler and

Specimens of Ti-155A (Ti-5Al-1.3Fe-1.3Cr-1.2Mo), Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-4Al-3Mo-1V were hydrogenated, aged to high strength levels, and subjected to notched stress-rupture tests and tensile tests at two strain rates. Both Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-155A were relatively unaffected by hydrogen in amounts exceeding those found in commercially -produced material. Inconsistencies in the data and a relatively low initial level of ductility prevented an accurate determination of the hydrogen tolerance for aged Ti-4Al-3Mo-1V, but there was no evidence that this alloy was any more susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement than Ti-155A and Ti-6A1-4V. THE metallurgical literature has been considerably enriched in the past five years by the publication of the results of many investigations which were concerned with the effects of hydrogen on titanium and its alloys. Although it is not the authors' intention to provide a complete literature survey of this vast field, it is worthwhile to summarize briefly some of the important factors which influence the embrittling phenomenon in a - B alloys. Some of the influencing factors are those of strain rate, temperature, and composition. Hydrogen embrittlement in a - B titanium alloys is now believed to be a strain-induced phenomenon, and whether or not embrittlement occurs at high hydrogen levels depends largely upon whether sufficient time is available for hydride precipitation. This condition is fulfilled by tensile testing at very slow strain rates or by rupture testing smooth or, preferably, notched specimens over relatively long periods. Conveniently, maximum embrittlement occurs at or near room temperature. The presence B - stabilizing elements, in amounts sufficiently small to prevent an all -B or nearly all -P condition, promotes hydrogen embrittlement and this tendency is believed to be related to the amount of a - B interfacial area present. Aluminum, by increasing the solubility of hydrogen in A titanium, greatly reduces the danger of hydrogen embrittlement, while oxygen has been shown to have detrimental effects.' The preceding discussion is based on experimental work performed on annealed a - P alloys. This early work has shown that annealed Ti-6A1-4V and Ti-155A are relatively insensitive to the embrittling effects of hydrogen.' Although no work has been reported on annealed Ti-4A1-3Mo-lV, the alloy would be expected to exhibit somewhat the same insensitiv-ity as Ti-155A. In sharp contrast to the voluminous literature on annealed titanium alloys is the paucity of reported investigations on materials receiving commercial heat-treatment cycles. To date, the most notable contributions in this field have arisen from two separate investigations on Ti-3Mn-1Fe-1Cr-1V-lMo, the so-called 3Mn comple~. These investigations

Jan 1, 1961

By Richard M. Foose

Most of the roofing granules produced in Pennsylvania are made by two companies at three plants. The Advance Industrial Supply Co. has three quarries and a mill at Gladhill Station, in southern Adams County. The Funkhouser Company is actively engaged in mining, quarrying and milling at Charmian, about one mile west of Gladhill Station, and at Delta, in southern York County. These three plants produced approximately 100,000 short tons of granules in 1943. The production of rooling granules in 1937 for the whole country was only about 500,000 tons, generally indicating the large growth of the industry since that time. The fundamentals of producing roofing granules were discussed comprehensively by G. W. Josephson in a paper before the Industrial Minerals Division in October 1943 (TP 1725, this volume page 460). The purpose of this paper is to describe the actual methods of mining the rock and milling it to make roofing granules, as practiced by the three Pennsylvania plants. Mining and Milling Funkhouser Company (Delta) The Funkhouser Company, near Delta, in southern York County, Pennsylvania, operates three joined quarries and a mine in the Peach Bottom slate. The joined quarries extend 1200 ft. in a northeast-southwest direction along the strike of the slate cleavage and are about 200 ft. .wide. The working face is about 45 ft. high. The quarrying operation is rather simple: Ingersoll-Rand Jackhamers, I-in. and 1 1/4-in., with hollow drill steel, are used to undercut the quarry face with 10-ft. holes. The face is "blown" and allowed to slump on the quarry floor. Loaded by a Marion electric shovel into trucks, the shattered rock is taken to the primary crusher 2500 ft. away. In addition to the normal quarrying operations, a drift into the northeast wall of the middle quarry was begun about 1935, and has advanced about 2000 ft. since then. Rooms have been driven at angles to the drift along choice beds of slate. The drifts and rooms have a roof more than 35 ft. high and the main drift and rooms are all more than 40 ft. wide. There is no cribbing at any place in the mine. Several of the rooms were driven upward on a 5' slope and in some of them there was stop-ing. Ingersoll-Rand Jackhamers are used, and only wet drilling is practiced. When visited in January 1940, an electric shovel was operating at the head of the drift, scooping up the slate blasted out of the working face. This, too, is trucked to the primary crusher. Some of the better quality slate is saved for making slate shingles. The primary crusher, which is a No. 30 McCulley gyratory, receives the slate from the trucks and crushes it to about a-in. size (Fig. I). This product travels by a 30-in. belt conveyor to Niagara vibrating screens with 2-in. holes. The minus a-in. product moves to a storage silo by bucket

Jan 1, 1948