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The total estimated production of coal in the United States during the first century and a quarter of mining is shown in Table 20. This is the total of the production of the various states already shown in the various tables, and is believed to be the first statement of this sort made. No such table prepared from limited data can be accurate, but it is the writer's opinion that the totals shown are less than those actually produced. It was thought that this study would enable a reasonably accurate account of the movement of coal down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to be written. The searches made have shown that at this time the data do not exist from which such a study can be made, but some of the facts collected may be useful to future students.

Jan 1, 1942

By EDWARD B. DURHAH

The illustration Fig. 12, of the paper of Edward B. Durham, "Electrolytic Refining at the U. S. Mint, San Francisco, Cal.," printed in Bulletin No. 58, October, 1911, p. 830, contained an error. The corrected diagram is printed below.

Nov 1, 1911

K. W. Turner, Sail Francisco, Cal. (communication to the Secretary*): The recent papers in the Transactions by Vogt,' Lindgren2 and Weed: on ore-deposits that have formed as a direct result of igneous intrusions, show that deposits of this class are widely distributed over the world, and are occasionally of commercial value. This is especially true if we consider under this head all deposits in the zone of contactrnletamorphism, the origin of which may be ascribed to the gases and vapors generated by the heat of the intrusive rock. Mr. Smith's description of the Chillagoe garnet-formations containing copper, leads one to regard these depoaits as of contactrmetamorphic origin, although he gives certain reaeons for supposing them to be of igneous origin.

Jan 1, 1904

By Charles A. Stetefeldt

This treatise is the sequel of a paper on "Russell's Improved Process for the Lixiviation of Silver-ores," etc., read at the Chicago meeting, in May, 1884, and published in the Transactions, vol. xiii., page 47. The facts it presents are principally compiled from Mr. Russell's notes on his practical experience gained in various places where the Russell process has been introduced. For a complete understanding of this paper a perusal of my former one is desirable, as can be seen from the frequent references here made to it. All silver-ores that do not carry a large percentage of lead or copper can be treated by Russell's process with success and economy. I do not mean to create the impression that from ores containing considerable quantities of lead and copper a high percentage of the silver cannot be extracted by this process. Such ores, however, will, in many localities, be reduced to better advantage by smelting. In case lead-bearing silver-ores are suitable for concentration, it may be profitable to concentrate the ore by Krom's dry system, obtaining a smelting-product high in lead, and to lixiviate the tailings and the dust. This plan has been adopted in a mill recently erected in Cortez District, Nevada. The dry system of concentration deserves the preference because it delivers the tailings and the dust in a condition ready for chloridizing-roasting. In wet concentration the drying of the tail ings would be expensive, and there would be a considerable loss of silver in slimes. Oxidized ores, containing silver chloride and lead minerals, may be lixiviated after crushing, and the tailings may be concentrated for lead. In this case wet concentration would be most suitable. This has been done at the Old Telegraph Mine, Utah. I would give, however, the preference to dry concentration in all cases which, of course, requires that concentration should precede lixiviation. The Russell process is also adapted to the treatment of tailings resulting from ores which have been worked either by the old

Jan 1, 1887

By John Birkinbine

A specimen of brown hematite, taken from an iron-ore mine near Anniston, Alabama, exhibits a metallic streak or thread running throngh it. This specimen having been sent to me, I have no personal knowledge of its occurrence; but Mr. Albert E. Noble

Jan 1, 1895

By Axel Sahlin

Having no business interest in any of the various machines used for granulating ores, my remarks on the subject are prompted solely by my desire to contribute towards the determination of the best apparatus such information, as I have been able to gather,

Jan 1, 1893

By EL HANAF

The exploratory program initiated in Egypt in 1937 by four major oil companies was well under way early in 1939. Extensive gravity-meter surveys were carried out in the Sinai Peninsula and the Eastern and Western Deserts. Seismic and magnetometer work vas conducted on a restricted scale. The data collected justified wildcat drilling on structures located geophysically and/or geologically.

Jan 1, 1946

By D. I. Bardos, A. M. Bardos, Paul A. Beck

The approximate effective silicon radii in ternary Laves phase alloys with transition elements and silicon were found to range between 1.16 and 1.21A, i.e., considerably smaller than the atomic radius calculated for elemental silicon. The atomic radii were found to increase with the size of the transition element atoms in the structure. It has been noted by Aronsson1 that silicon in solid solution in iron, cobalt, and nickel has an effective CN 12 atomic radius of approximately 1.20Å, a value very much smaller than the CN 12 radius of 1.34Å derived from the interatomic distances in elemental silicon.7 The unusually short metal-silicon interatomic distances in transition element monosilicides and disilicides have been also pointed out by various investigators.1 A similar tendency was observed by Nevitt in Cr3O type silicides.2 Recent work on Laves phases in ternary systems of silicon with transition elements4"8 suggested that extensive Laves phase fields may occur in such systems.8 It has been pointed out by Laves7 that the MgCu2 and MgZn2 type structures lend themselves particularly well for the determination of the effective radii of the component atoms. In these AB2 phases the B atoms are arranged in close packed straight lines, and their distances are related in a simple manner to the lattice parameters.8 The present work was undertaken in order to find out whether or not the B transition element in such AB2 Laves phases can be replaced to an appreciable extent by silicon. In cases where extensive substitution proves to be possible, the "average atomic radius for the B site" at various silicon contents was to be determined, and the effective atomic radius of silicon calculated by extrapolation to complete replacement of the B component by silicon. The following ternary systems were studied: Ti-Mn-Si, Ti-Fe-Si, V-Co-Si, V-Ni-Si, Nb-Fe-Si, Nb-Co-Si, Ta-Fe-Si, Ta-Co-Si, and Mo-Fe-Si. In all of these alloy systems, the Laves phase solid solutions were found to extend over a considerable range of silicon content. As previously reported,4"8 in the V-Co-Si, V-Ni-Si, and Mo-Fe-Si ternary systems Laves phases do occur, even though there are no corresponding binary Laves phases. In stabilizing the Laves phase, silicon acts as if it were decreasing the effective electron concentration of the alloy.8 A more detailed study of the boundaries of the Laves phases in the V-Co-Si and V-Ni-Si systems has been made and will be published elsewhere. In both cases, the elongated Laves phase fields extend parallel to the B-Si side of the composition triangle, clearly showing that silicon is substituting for cobalt, respectively, nickel over a wide range of compositions. The binary Laves phases NbCo2 and TaCo2 have the cubic MgCu2-type structure. It was found that, in both ternary systems with silicon, again the MgZn2-type hexagonal Laves phase is stabilized and that this phase extends to high-silicon contents. In each ternary system at least three Laves phase alloys of the composition A(B1_xSix)2 were used, x here denoting the fractional substitution of the B-transition element atoms by silicon. The alloys, listed in Table I, were prepared by arc melting in argon. Each specimen was water quenched after a homogenizing anneal of 3 days at 110(FC, except for the Mo-Fe-Si alloys, which were annealed at 1200°C. Metallographic examination showed that most of the homogenized alloys consisted of a single phase, although some had minor amounts of a second phase, as shown in Table I. X-ray diffraction patterns were prepared using an asymmetrical focusing camera of large resolution and Fe Ka radiation. The patterns were indexed, and the lattice parameters of the hexagonal Laves phases were determined from the available diffraction lines of highest indices: (213), (205), and (313). The lat-

Jan 1, 1963

By Frank Firmstone

The material described below was made at Furnace No. 2, Longdale, Va., Oct. 28, 1907, during a sudden derangement of working, in the course of which the furnace became entirely bridged over and for some time no solid material whatever descended into the hearth. This caused the hearth to become so completely emptied that, at the tuyere-level, a pricker put in at one tuyere could be seen by looking in at the opposite one. The tap-hole was opened and the iron got out with some difficulty. It ran sluggishly, throwing many sparks, but was not too thick to run into the chill-molds. Naturally, the product was assumed to be white iron, which is almost always produced under similar circumstances; but on removal front the molds it proved to be very strong and tough, although full of blow-holes. Most of these blow-holes bad bright, unoxidized walls. The iron could be drilled by using a "special steel" drill, the drillings curling up similarly to those of steel. An analysis by P. W. Shimer of this unusual product gave: Si, 0.019; P, 0.228; S, 0,39; Mn, 0.042; C, 2.366; and graphite, 0:000 per cent. A cast of iron made just before the disturbance contained P, 0.98, and Mn, 1 per cent. The peculiar product seems to have been decarburized in the hearth and, at the same time, to have lost much phosphorus and manganese, either by the action of the blast in the empty hearth, or, more probably, by. contact with the cinder rich in iron which was formed at the time. Unfortunately, no specimen of the cinder was preserved, so its composition cannot be given. It seems very remarkable that, with the furnace in bad condition, the temperature should be high enough to keep such

Sep 1, 1908

Allan Gibb, Queensland, Australia (communication to the Secretary*):—It is gratifying that Mr. Edward Keller,' who has clone so much work elucidating the principles of copper-metnllurgy, should have subjected only that portion of our investigation relating to magnetic iron oxide to anything like adverse criticism. Situated as we were on a rnining-camp, it was impossible to undertake work that would cover all the intricate possibilities connected with the materials commonly classed as matte. We therefore began the investigation on matte produced from ores that contained no other components than the sulphides of copper and iron that would be likely to enter into the composition of matte. We were, accordingly, free from ally possibility of magnetic iron oxide entering the matte, unless it were formed in the operation itself. The work done on this subject was incomplete, and the results thereof recorded as giving only negative evidence as to the absence of magnetic iron oxide. It would have been better to have left the matter open, as " not proven." The trend of the investigation was to account for the insufficiency of sulphur in matte to satisfy the requirements of ferrous and cuprous sulphides. So far as our deductions are correct, it was unnecessary to consider the (in our samples) somewhat doubtful constituent, magnetic iron oxide. The mattes that mere investigated were among those mentioned by Mr. Keller, " which scarcely show ally magnetic property." The samples showed no such property. There was no unaccountable variation in the specific gravity, which only varied, as would be expected, with the proportion of ferrous sulphide. I have had experience in smelting ores of which the gangue was a siliceous magnetite, both in blast- and rever-beratory furuace. The mattes so produced contained magnetic

Jan 1, 1908

By C. H. Mathewson, Kent R. Van Horn

Copper and the copper-base solid solutions readily form twin crystals when plastically deformed at a suitably elevated temperature or annealed after cold deformation. In fact, no feature of the microstructure of these materials is more prominent or characteristic than these straight-sided bands or simple lines of division which sometimes come from groups of thin polysynthetic lamellae, penetrating part way or wholly through the parent grain substance, but often divide the grain into a few or perhaps only two crystallographically related parts. Nearly always the bands as seen in the usual microscopic examination of a specimen come into vivid contrast with the adjacent crystalline material owing to the inherent difference in orientation. Bands which under special conditions of orientation cannot be seen with vertically incident light are often visible under oblique illumination and, when this fails, contrasting effects usually may be obtained by using polarized light. There is no longer any doubt that these synthetic banded structures obtained in the ordinary course of working and annealing are due to twinning of the spinel type which was observed long ago in a number of metals crystallizing in the isometric system.' It has been customary in metallurgical literature to designate these synthetic twins, which grow into prominence during an annealing process, as "annealing twins" without regard to the actual mode of their formation, which is, indeed, obscure and with scant recognition of the fact that prior deformation is essential, no twins having been observed in metal of known unstrained history. This is questionable; especially in view of the fact that in a number of metals and minerals, reorientation into the twin configuration is known to occur as a result of a simple shearing mechanism along the recognized twinning planes and the

Jan 1, 1930

By A. B. Parsons

PUBLICATION of this little volume is a luxury that the Institute itself could scarcely afford. In truth, no engineer nor geologist, no assayer nor metallurgist would be likely to enhance his knowledge, improve his technique, or cut his own operating costs by reading this excellent translation of two booklets first published circa A.D. 1520. It is doubtful if the present enterprise would, in a practical or tangible way, "promote the arts and sciences connected with the economic production of the useful minerals and metals." And such, is the prescribed purpose for which the funds of the Institute should be spent. Fortunately for the Institute, the Seeley W. Mudd Memorial Fund is not so circumscribed; and the Fund Committee enjoys, greater liberty of action. The sponsorship by the Mudd Fund in 1942 of the publication of The Pirotechnia of Vannoccio Biringuccio, as translated by Dr. Smith and Mrs. Gnudi, was an innovation-indeed something of an experiment. Not only was the content of the volume significant mainly for its "cultural" and "scholarly" attributes; -but the format, an outstanding example of the fascinating art of bookmaking, bore no resemblance to the ordinary technical book. The Committee, frankly, was surprised at the enthusiastic reception accorded the volume. When a second edition was required, the Committee became convinced that the publication of material of this type, particularly if printed and bound in attractive form, was an appropriate avenue for utilizing a moderate proportion of the monies available from the Fund. The Bergbüchlein and the Probierbüchlein antedate by some years the first publication of De la Pirotechnia and of De re Metallica; but Georgius Agricola, the author of the latter work, made good use of the material in the earlier volumes. As pointed out in the Introduction, both

Jan 1, 1949

By S. W. Parr

THE low-temperature carbonization of coal involves the carrying out of the coking process under conditions wherein neither the coal mass nor any of the passageways through which the volatile products pass are heated above 700° or 800° C. For convenience in this discussion, the single number 750° will be used to designate the maximum range. This temperature is not selected arbitrarily; it is the result of certain natural conditions that are inherent in the substances involved. Two of these conditions arc sufficiently pronounced to suggest a line of demarcation at this point as follows: (1) Below 750°, all the heavy hydrocarbons are expelled, which means that, at these lower temperatures, the illuminants, the gases of high calorific value, and the condensible oils are discharged; above 750°, there are given off the lean, non-illuminating gases consisting for the most part of hydrogen and marsh gas and having no condensible constituents present. (2) Below 750°, there is substantially no secondary decomposition; above 750°, the volatile products are readily decomposed, forming tars, naphthalene, free carbon, etc. It is not intended to maintain that no secondary decompositions occur below 750°. Many recent studies have demonstrated the practicability, especially in the presence of catalytic substances, of cracking certain of the hydrocarbon compounds; but at these lower temperatures the step is a moderate one, as, for example, from xylene to toluene or from toluene to an anthracene. These changes are moderate in amount. Not only do the reactions proceed slowly but they are subjected to the decomposing conditions for only a short time. This is evident when it is recalled that at these initial temperatures the decomposition, of the coal is very rapid and, if anywhere near a neutral pressure is maintained, the movement

Jan 2, 1920

A. 0. ASHMAN, Palmerton, Pa. (written discussion *.).-Mr. Newcomb's paper has interested me greatly, as I have had numerous experiences along this line. I do not think enough emphasis can be put on his warn-ing to keep platinum couples free from contact with quartz tubes, as silica shows a tendency to alloy with platinum to a surprising degree even at low temperatures. I have frequently had evidence of silica contamination in a perfectly good tube, in which there was seemingly no possibility of a reducing atmosphere. This is rather important as it seems to be common practice to insulate, as well as protect, the wires by means of- capillary silica tubing, thus allowing the entire wire to be in contact with the silica. The best way to mount a couple in a silica protecting tube is by means of double-bore porcelain insulating tubes, the protecting tube being slightly longer than the couple so as to leave a space between the couple and the end of the tube. In this way there is no possibility of contamination from silica. In no case should silica capillary tubes be used to insulate platinum wires. Mr. Newcomb states that there is still much to be desired in pyro-meter protecting tubes; this is in keeping with my experience. From a practical standpoint there is not a satisfactory pyrometer tube on the market for high temperatures; with all clue respect to the many improve-ments and good work recently done in this line. I believe that the whole future development of pyrometry is dependent on the development of suitable refractories. With suitable refractories, for example, Darling's1 work with liquid couples could be developed to a practical basis, making possible the use of base-metal couples to replace platinum.

Jan 12, 1919

By S. W. Parr

FROM a study of sulfur with reference to its specific combination in coal, published as University of Illinois Bulletin No. 111, 1919, it is now possible to determine the various forms of this constituent with a good degree of accuracy. This fact suggests two questions: (1) Are the same analytic methods applicable to coke? (2) Is there any correlation between the forms of sulfur as it occurs in coal and the residual sulfur found in the finished coke? The answer to the second question might be helpful in answering a still further question as to what chemical route the sulfur travels during the carbonization process. While the special studies along these several lines are by no means complete, a few preliminary statements are herewith presented. They may, at least, prove suggestive of further possibilities from a continuation of research along these lines. There is no reason, chemically, why the analytic methods devised for coal should not apply to coke and a fair amount of experience in connection with such use affords confirmation of this statement. The procedure in the case of coal may be briefly outlined as follows; Combinations of sulfur as sulfate, or sulfides other than FeS2, are readily dissolved without disturbing either the pyrite sulfur or the sulfur that is in organic combination by means of dilute hydrochloric, acid-1 part of concentrated HC1 to 10 parts of water or approximately 3 per cent. acid. Digestion at 60° C. for 24 hr. insures the complete removal of the sulfur thus combined. In freshly mined coal the amount of such sulfur is very small; weathering processes, however, may very materially increase the amount of sulfate present.

Jan 9, 1919

By Kenneth Cottingham

The number of wells drilled in Ohio in 1943 was slightly in excess of the number drilled in 1942. Compared with the average annual completions for the five years preceding, the year 1943 was short 11 per cent, hut the average initial volume of gas wells was considerably improved. In 1942 the average initial open flow per gas well was 668 M cu. ft., whereas in 1943 the average was 913 M cu. ft. Although no large gas-producing areas were discovered during the year under review, some 30 small pools were found in 17 of the counties of eastern Ohio. These new pools averaged about 300 acres each, and most of them were not extensions but were separate pools adjacent to older production. The Clinton sand furnished most of these discoveries, although six were from the Berea, one was Newburg, and three were shallow sands. No discoveries were made outside former producing counties, and there was no new development the Trenton area of western Ohio. The number of oil wells decreased from 181 drilled in 1942, to 170 in the year 1943. The production of Pennsylvania-grade oil increased 7644 bbl. The total Corning production, however, decreased 91,325 bbl. The present price of Corning-grade oil, $1.31 per bbl., is too low, in the opinion of the operator, to justify exploration. Until something is done in correcting the price level of Corning grade, the production probably will continue to decline. The oil industry in Ohio is making a concentrated effort toward increased production and improved methods of recovering Pennsylvania-grade oil, and a.s this report is written a research and engineering program is being formulated for the benefit and information of the various producers of that grade in Ohio.

Jan 1, 1944

By Wallace Pratt

THE Philippine Islands. have produced no oil commercially, nevertheless, oil is known to be present at various places in the islands.1 Although all attempts to produce oil commercially have failed, no intelligent, persistent exploration has been carried out. The Richmond Petroleum Corpn. a subsidiary of the Standard Oil Co. of California) and a syndicate, headed by Ralph Arnold are at present engaged in exploring Bondoc Peninsula in Tayabas Province, one of the promising Philippine areas, in a manner that promises to test the petroleum possibilities adequately and intelligently. How can the petroleum resources of an entirely undeveloped area like the Philippines be estimated, where not even the areal extent of the various geologic formations is known? Obviously no calculated figure for assured future production can be derived. Yet a study of the evidence of the occurrence of petroleum, the character of the possible reservoir beds, the probable source rocks, the character and size of favorable structures, and the area over which petroleum-bearing rocks are known to occur, will throw some light on the question. The fact that rocks of the same geologic age and similar composition have been explored and are producing in Borneo, Sumatra, and Java to the south and in Formosa and Japan to the north also affect the problem, so that one can obtain some idea of the quantity of petroleum that may reasonably be expected from the Philippines. It is this measure of the possibilities rather than a definite calculation of petroleum reserves that is presented herewith. This paper will not attempt to describe, nor even to enumerate in detail, the occurrences of petroleum in the Philippines as such data have already been published. Fig. 1 indicates the localities where

Jan 7, 1922

All the TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS and CONTRIBUTIONS published in 1933 are available at Institute headquarters, unless otherwise noted. They are also on file in many public, university and technical libraries and, when so indicated in the list, may be found in the TRANSACTIONS. Copies of the TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS have been mailed to those members of the Institute who are registered in the different classes: A-Metal Mining; B-Milling and Concentration; C-Iron and Steel Division; D-Nonferrous Metallurgy;. E-Insti¬ tute of Metals Division; F-Coal Division; G-Petroleum Division; H-Nonmetallic Minerals; I-Mining Geology; J-Mineral Industry Education Division; K-Mining Administration; L-Geophysical Prospecting. Other members may obtain copies by writing to the Secretary. Copies of CONTRIBUTIONS may also be obtained from the Secretary's office. Additional copies are sold at the rate of 1 cent per page; minimum charge, 25 cents. Nonmembers may purchase the papers at the prices mentioned. METAL MINING TECH- NICAL PUBLI- TITLE AUTHOR MEETING TRANS. CATION VOLUME No. AND PAGE* 499-A.47 Red Ore Mines of the Woodward T. C. DeSollar New York, Iron Company at Bessemer, Feb., 1933 Alabama (11) CONTRI¬ BUTION No. 1-A The Owyhee Tunnels (16) P. R. Hines New York, Feb., 1933 2-A Sinking and Equipment of the No. D. D. Homer New York, 2 Shaft at Minas de Mata- R. H. Cromwell Feb., 1933 hambre (25) 3-A Subsidence Resulting from the Charles W. Allen New York, Athens System of Mining at Feb., 1933 Negaunee, Michigan (8) 4-A Effect of Approximately Vertical P. B. Bucky New York, Cracks on the Behavior of Hori- Feb., 1933 zontally. Lying Roof Strata (16) 21-A Selection of a Mining System (11) R. K. Warner New York, Feb., 1933

Jan 1, 1933

By Frank Kneeland

SAFETY FIRST is a popular motto-most mining companies have adopted it. It is probable, however, that in the majority of cases it is only a motto and gets no further than the office stationery or the bulletin board at the mine's entrance. In but few industries is there employed a greater diversity of machinery and mechanical devices than in coal mining. The list ranges all the way from mechanical stokers to wood-working machinery and undercutters. Many of these devices, particularly those employed in wood working, are extremely dangerous. In 1913, 23 per cent. of all fatalities occurring in coal mining in the U. S. were caused by machinery of some sort or other. Although the forms of accidents occurring with mining machinery are legion, they generally arise from one or more of five causes: (a) Falls from ladders, platforms, etc.; (b) coming in contact with moving machines or parts thereof; (c) electric shocks; (d) failure of some machine part; (e) mismanipulation of valves, levers, switches or other hand-operated controlling devices. The steps which may be taken to prevent accidents from the above causes are almost as numerous as the accidents themselves. There is, and can be, no panacea for all mishaps, nor for any one class of accidents. There is no mathematical or other formula that will bring immunity under any set of conditions. Common sense is the only guide. The remedy for the first-named class of accidents is simple and generally effective-namely, make the staging, ladder, platform, or other support, abundantly strong to carry any possible weight that it may be called upon to bear; provide ample railings on platforms or runways, and non-slipping feet on movable ladders.

Jan 1, 1915

By Kenneth Cottingham

The number of wells drilled in Ohio in 1943 was slightly in excess of the number drilled in 1942. Compared with the average annual completions for the five years preceding, the year 1943 was short 11 per cent, hut the average initial volume of gas wells was considerably improved. In 1942 the average initial open flow per gas well was 668 M cu. ft., whereas in 1943 the average was 913 M cu. ft. Although no large gas-producing areas were discovered during the year under review, some 30 small pools were found in 17 of the counties of eastern Ohio. These new pools averaged about 300 acres each, and most of them were not extensions but were separate pools adjacent to older production. The Clinton sand furnished most of these discoveries, although six were from the Berea, one was Newburg, and three were shallow sands. No discoveries were made outside former producing counties, and there was no new development the Trenton area of western Ohio. The number of oil wells decreased from 181 drilled in 1942, to 170 in the year 1943. The production of Pennsylvania-grade oil increased 7644 bbl. The total Corning production, however, decreased 91,325 bbl. The present price of Corning-grade oil, $1.31 per bbl., is too low, in the opinion of the operator, to justify exploration. Until something is done in correcting the price level of Corning grade, the production probably will continue to decline. The oil industry in Ohio is making a concentrated effort toward increased production and improved methods of recovering Pennsylvania-grade oil, and a.s this report is written a research and engineering program is being formulated for the benefit and information of the various producers of that grade in Ohio.

Jan 1, 1944