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By C. Wert, G. Mah

A relaxation peak thought to be due to the presence of C-C pairs in cobalt has been observed. It exists both above 420"C, where cobalt has the fcc structure, and below 420"C, where cobalt has the hcp structure at equilibrium. The effect is thought, however, to be caused by motion of C-C pairs in the fcc phase in both instances; enough retained fcc phase was deduced to be present at temperatures below 420°C to make the phenomenon possible. Measurements of the aniso-tropy of the effect in single crystals of various orientations of fcc phase showed the effect to have a maximum value in longitudinal strain for a [loo] crystal and a minimum value for a [Ill] crystal. This observation seems to rule out the possibility of (110) nn pairs being responsible for the effect. From measurements of the strength of the relaxation in the alloys, we reach the conclusion that both the binding energy of the pairs and the specific relaxation per pair are smaller than corresponding quantities for interstitial pairs in bcc metals. DETERMINATION of the details of atom placement of small atoms such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen in metals has been a difficult problem. In certain alloys such as martensite extensive departure from random placement of the interstitials can be deduced from X-ray diffraction off the atoms of the host metal, but such diffraction techniques are of small help for small departures from randomness. A technique which does offer promise in the latter instance is the anelasticity of these interstitial alloys. Most previous investigations using this property have utilized alloys in which the solvent is one of the bcc metals, alloys such as These studies have been interpreted to show that an interaction exists between interstitials which causes them to form clusters in more than random numbers; the binding energy of interstitials in such clusters has been deduced to be about 0.1 ev per atom (for small clusters of size two to four atoms). Similar investigations have been carried out on close-packed solvent metals, Ni-C by and Diamond and Ag-O by Papazian.8- In both of these svstems. no relaxation of the singly dissolved interstitial is expected, so an-elastic behavior of the interstitials must be caused by their association in some cluster or complex of non-cubic symmetry. Since relaxations in these alloys were observed to have a strength which varied about as the square of the interstitial concentration, the effect was deduced to be caused predominately by motion of i-i pairs in the crystal. A striking difference is observed in relaxation strength of interstitial alloys between the bcc and fcc systems. The specific effect per interstitial atom is much larger for the alloys in the bcc crystals than for those in fcc crystals. Comparing clusters of size two in the Nb-O system4 and the Ni-C system,7 one finds the magnitude of the anelastic effect per interstitial atom in the former to be some 100 times greater than that in the latter. Such a difference in relaxation strength might be caused by a difference in concentration of the pairs (this means a higher binding energy in the bcc crystals). It might also be caused by a large difference in shape factor of the elastic strain field about the pairs between the two cases (a much more noncubic shape factor would be required for the bcc crystals). This investigation was undertaken to examine the possibility of C-C pair formation in alloys of cobalt and carbon using anelastic effects. Since cobalt has both fcc and hep phases, it seemed to offer the chance that measurements over a range of frequency might permit comparison of properties of pairs in the two crystal types. Although this goal was not reached, several significant facts were deduced from the observations. 1) An anelastic phenomenon believed to be associated with the presence of C-C pairs in cobalt exists. It has many features in common with that observed in nickel. 2) The effect is thought to be caused by pair motion in the fcc phase. 3) Calculations of the relaxation strength A, which includes as a parameter the product of the pair concentration, C, and the square of the shape factor ', show that this parameter is much smaller in the CO-C alloy system than in the interstitial alloys in the bcc systems. 4) From this finding, we reach the conclusion that both the binding energy of C-C pairs in cobalt and the specific relaxation strength per pair are small compared to corresponding values for such pairs in the bcc systems. 5) The crystalline anisotropy of the effect permits the identification of reasonable geometrical models of close C-C pairs. I) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A) Method of Measurement. The anelastic measurements-—all of which were constant frequency measurements of internal friction—were designed to study the expected phenomenon in both the hcp and fcc structures in cobalt. Knowledge of similar measurements in Ni-C alloys led us to believe that the damping peak should occur below the transformation temperature for frequencies near 1 cps and above for frequencies near 100 kcps. This surmise was correct. The low-frequency measurements were made on wire specimens using a vacuum torsion pendulum; the damping peak was found at about 2'70°C at a frequency of 1 cps. Because of large superimposed damping of magnetic origin at this temperature, a longitudinal magnetic field of about 1500 oe was applied to the

Jan 1, 1969

By P. H. Cardwell

The effect of various plastics upon the permeability of a sand and the mechanism of their ensuring permeability within the consolidated sand body is discussed. Data are presented on various properties of the plastic materials used in sand consolidation and the effect of temperature and usable temperature ranges are considered. The recovery of petroleum from uncon-solidated sands presents serious production problems, owing to sloughing of the formation. The solution of some of these problems usually has been by mechanical methods.' The ideal way of controlling the sloughing tendencies of these un consolidated formations, however, is to prevent the movement of the individual sand grains by the use of a bonding medium. A step in the desired direction was taken by Irons and Stcesser2 when they taught the use of liquid plastics to produce a consolidating deposit that prevents sloughing. More recently, Wrightsman and Buckley3 proposed a modification of this process. In this use of the liquid plastic, the sand grains become coated and the ensuing hardening of the plastic by polymerization or condensation cements together the sand Particles. Liquid plastics that have been suggested for this Purpose are of the following types: phenolformaldehyde, alkyd resins, vinyl type resins, polystyrene and the acrylic esters. When the flow of fluids through a sand must not be materially reduced, it is essential only to cement together the sand grains with liquid plastic and leave a portion of the interstitial space for fluid flow. TO be assured of obtaining fluid flow through the sand interstices after injection of plastic, it has been necessary in the past to remove the excess plastic from the interstices between the particles before it sets. Wrightsman and Buckley suggest two methods for the removal of the excess plastic from the interstices of the sand: (I) to flush the excess plastic back into the formation, away from the well bore, by use of oil or water; (2) to produce the well before the plastic has set, thereby moving the excess plastic into the well bore. Under certain well conditions it is very difficult to remove the excess plastic from all parts of the formation by either of these methods and leave the formation consolidated with no sections completely sealed. The method* described herein of retaining permeability within a sand body is to use a liquid plastic that upon setting ensures permeability within the consolidated sand body. This cements the sand grains but obviates the need for removing plastic from the interstices of the sand. One of the ways of accomplishing this is to use a liquid plastic that occupies a considerably greater volume than the solidified resin it yields on further polymerization or condensation in situ. In order to be satisfactory, the volume of the plastic while liquid should be at least one and one half times the volume of the solid formed. Preferably,

Jan 1, 1947

By Eugene P. Pfleider

Research indicates that the cube diamond is a superior stone for drill bits. It can be oriented to combine a long cutting edge with structural strength and high resistance to wear. Test bits set with preferred orientation give double the bit life at astoundingly low diamond loss in comparison to oriented octahedral diamonds. A PROGRAM of research on the orientation of diamonds in drill bits has been under way for several years at both the United States Bureau of Mines Experimental Mine at Mount Weather, Va., and the School of Mines and Metallurgy of the University of Minnesota. Reports on past work done both in the laboratory and the field are available in the technical press.1,3,4 The results of such drilling, done under comparable conditions, show that bits having diamonds oriented in a direction that combines structural strength and greatest hardness not only can advance somewhat faster than random set bits but can do this with a unit diamond loss of 50 pct or less. Several bit manufacturers have initiated the training of diamond setters in the principles of orientation on the basis of the above-mentioned research results. The basic information on the crystallography and hardness variation of the diamond was presented in an earlier paper,' which pointed out that the diamond is several hundred times harder along certain directions and certain faces than on others. The same article discussed the drilling results obtained with a group of nine bits having octahedron diamonds set with on-point, positive (gouge) rake, and negative (drag) rake orientations. The testing of oriented cube diamonds is an extension of this research program, employing the same procedures and equipment (Hy Mac hydraulic drill unit, EXT diamond core bits, St. Cloud Pink granite) as previously described. This current work covers the test experience of seven bits set with cube diamonds running approximately 10 stones per carat. The individual stones were near perfect cubic form; hence it was simple to orient them in any desired direction. The cube is a comparatively rare crystal form of the diamond, although considerable numbers are produced from the Congo. It is understood that most of the cube diamonds are retained in Africa, where they are either used locally for diamond bit manufacture or ground up to make powder. They have been considered to be an inferior stone for drilling purposes.

Jan 1, 1954

By Russell Franks

IN recent years a considerable tonnage of the 18 per cent chromium and 8 per cent nickel steels has been used in lightweight high-strength structures that must be resistant to deterioration under atmospheric conditions. These steels are austenitic in character and their strength can best be increased by cold-working. Although a marked increase in tensile strength is obtained, claims have been made that the cold-worked steels do not possess fully satisfactory elastic properties. Under certain conditions, however, this has caused no great concern, because, as explained by Ragsdale,1,2 the cold-rolled steels have been widely applied for construction of lightweight, high-strength trains using spot welding for joining purposes. Ffield3 agrees that the ease with which thin sections of the cold-rolled 18-8 steels can be joined by spot welding is greatly in their favor, but that they would be more satisfactory if higher elastic properties and a higher modulus of elasticity could be obtained. He states that, as far as the mechanical properties are concerned, the straight chromium stainless steel is superior to the cold-worked 18-8 steel, and in order to illustrate, he presented the data of Fig. 1, which also give a stress-strain curve for a low-carbon 13 per cent Cr steel. Ffield? pro-posed that columbium-bearing or titanium-bearing cold-rolled 18-8 steels be given a heat-treatment (preferably for 1 hr.) in the range 400° to 600°C. to precipitate carbides in order to obtain better mechani-cal properties. Discussions by Sutton,4,5 de Ganahl,6,7 8 Krivobok and Lincoln,9 Knerr,10 and Thaden11 have given further information on the properties of the cold-rolled 18-8 steels compared with other materials used in light-weight, high-strength structures. These investigators and others point out that the ultimate tensile strength of the cold-rolled 18-8 steel can be increased to 200,000 lb, per sq. in. or higher; Krivobok et al. indicate that

Jan 1, 1940

By R. R. Brandenthaler

CONTROLLING -the pressure under which a well produces crude oil has advantages that are ap¬parently not entirely realized by many operators in the Mid-Continent district. The possibilities of utilizing well pressures are indicated by a series of ex-periments recently completed by the Bureau of Mines in which pressure control was successfully applied to 20 wells in, the Davenport field. The flowing period of all of .the wells was lengthened in some instances it was. more than doubled. The daily oil production from approximately one-half of the tested wells was in-creased. The amount of gas produced per barrel of oil was decreased, and this, in addition to a slower rate of decline in production, indicated that the ultimate re-covery had been increased. The successful application of pressure control to flow-ing oil wells must take into consideration the relation-ships existing between pressures in the different parts of the system which, though not equal, are nevertheless more or less interrelated. These relationships, which have such an important bearing on the results obtained by applying pressure control, are as follows: A change in rock pressure will affect the tubing pressure, casing pressure, and differential pressure, but it will not affect the trap pressure. A change in tubing pressure will affect the differential pressure and casing pressure; also, a change in casing pressure will affect the tubing pressure and differential pressure. Trap pressures are not affected by rock pressure, casing pressure, tubing pressure, or differential pressure, unless the traps are required to handle gas and oil beyond their capacity. Trap pressures will affect the differential pressure, tubing pressure, and casing pressure and any changes at the well-head, whether differential pressure, tubing pres-sure or casing pressure, will affect the pressures in the well. Any change in rock pressure results in a change in the tubing pressure, casing pressure, and differential pressure. When any sudden or unusual change in well-head pres-sures occurs (for example, an erratic tubing pressure), and when a sudden decrease in oil or gas takes place, it is al-ways advisable to note whether the trap pressure has changed. If the trap pressure has not changed, note whether the oil line from the trap to the flow-tank has become clogged, as would be evidenced by a rise in the oil level in, the trap. If the oil line is functioning properly, and if the trap pressure has not changed, the flow-line from the well to the trap should be inspected. If it is free from obstructions, then changes in the differential pressure, tubing pressure, and casing pressure must be due to changed well conditions.

Jan 4, 1927

By P. H. Cardwell

The effect of various plastics upon the permeability of a sand and the mechanism of their ensuring permeability within the consolidated sand body is discussed. Data are presented on various properties of the plastic materials used in sand consolidation and the effect of temperature and usable temperature ranges are considered. The recovery of petroleum from uncon-solidated sands presents serious production problems, owing to sloughing of the formation. The solution of some of these problems usually has been by mechanical methods.' The ideal way of controlling the sloughing tendencies of these un consolidated formations, however, is to prevent the movement of the individual sand grains by the use of a bonding medium. A step in the desired direction was taken by Irons and Stcesser2 when they taught the use of liquid plastics to produce a consolidating deposit that prevents sloughing. More recently, Wrightsman and Buckley3 proposed a modification of this process. In this use of the liquid plastic, the sand grains become coated and the ensuing hardening of the plastic by polymerization or condensation cements together the sand Particles. Liquid plastics that have been suggested for this Purpose are of the following types: phenolformaldehyde, alkyd resins, vinyl type resins, polystyrene and the acrylic esters. When the flow of fluids through a sand must not be materially reduced, it is essential only to cement together the sand grains with liquid plastic and leave a portion of the interstitial space for fluid flow. TO be assured of obtaining fluid flow through the sand interstices after injection of plastic, it has been necessary in the past to remove the excess plastic from the interstices between the particles before it sets. Wrightsman and Buckley suggest two methods for the removal of the excess plastic from the interstices of the sand: (I) to flush the excess plastic back into the formation, away from the well bore, by use of oil or water; (2) to produce the well before the plastic has set, thereby moving the excess plastic into the well bore. Under certain well conditions it is very difficult to remove the excess plastic from all parts of the formation by either of these methods and leave the formation consolidated with no sections completely sealed. The method* described herein of retaining permeability within a sand body is to use a liquid plastic that upon setting ensures permeability within the consolidated sand body. This cements the sand grains but obviates the need for removing plastic from the interstices of the sand. One of the ways of accomplishing this is to use a liquid plastic that occupies a considerably greater volume than the solidified resin it yields on further polymerization or condensation in situ. In order to be satisfactory, the volume of the plastic while liquid should be at least one and one half times the volume of the solid formed. Preferably,

Jan 1, 1947

By R. F. Mehl, W. Batz, C. Wells

Diffusion coefficient values for carbon in austenite covering a wide range of temperature and composition have been determined employing statistical methods. In addition, the relation between concentration and each of the following, D (diffusion coefficient), Q (activation heat of diffusion), and A (the constant in the diffusion equation), has been obtained. A study of the rates of diffusion of austenite was published in Metals Technology in 1940.' The present investigation is an extension of the earlier work, undertaken (1) to obtain values of the coefficient of diffusion, D, over a much wider range of carbon concentration, and (2) to provide data in all ranges of concentration and temperature in such abundance that statistical methods could be employed to evaluate the accuracy of the data with unusual precision. Composition of Materials: Composition of materials used in this research program are listed in table I. These materials, all forged to about 1 1/4 in. rounds, consist of a high-purity iron, Armco iron, a large number of laboratory-made plain carbon steels containing amounts of impurities normally expected in high-quality commercial steels, and three silicon steels. Since it was known at the time these steels were being made that impurities in the amounts present were unlikely to affect carbon diffusion rates' significantly, the effort made to obtain high-purity steels was not as persistent as it otherwise would have been. Procedure: In general, the procedure followed by Wells and Mehl and described' in detail in an earlier publication' is the one used by the present authors. However, certain modifications have been made which it is believed allow diffusion data to be interpreted more objectively and correctly. These are described completely under appropriate subheadings which follow. Experimental Procedure: Experimental procedure includes (1) the preparation of specimens by welding steels of different carbon contents, (2) the heating of these for certain times at selected temperatures in order to diffuse carbon along the specimens across the welded "interface," and (3) the determination of the carbon distribution across the diffusion zone. Preparation of Specimens: Prior to welding steel of one carbon content to iron or steel of another carbon content, surfaces to be welded are machined perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of cylinders which are about 3/4 in. in diam and 1 1/2 in. long. The prepared, flat, parallel surfaces are brought together and butt-welded electrically. Evidence of a good weld is given in fig. 1. Welding temperature

Jan 1, 1951

By M. E. Lombardi

THE Coalinga oil field is located on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley, California. The structure is in general a monocline, the edges of the oil horizon resting on the foot hills and dipping gently toward the east. One prominent anticline occurs plunging southeast. The earlier drilling was done in the foot hills comparatively near the outcrop and the wells were shallow. The sands were followed eastward and, in the case of the anticline, along the plunge, the wells becoming deeper and deeper until the depth of 4,000 ft. was reached and passed. There is nothing to show that the oil will not be found in quantity at still greater depth. In fact, some of the best producers have tapped the sand at close to 4,000 ft. The recovery of oil still farther to the east, and therefore at greater depth, seems to be mainly a question of drilling. In this territory the formations drilled through are chiefly sands and shales; they will not "stand up" in an open drilling hole; the casing has to be carried close to the bit, and it is always difficult to keep the casing free for any considerable distance. Ability to carry casing of comparatively large diameter without conductor pipes for distances of 2,000 or 3,000 ft. or over is desirable in such territory chiefly for two reasons. It makes it possible to enter the oil sand with a pipe of ample diameter; it eliminates one or more expensive strings of casing which act only as conductors for the water string, and furthermore, in territory where waters are encountered which corrode steel rapidly, it makes possible the construction of a rust- and alkali-resisting water string. It is always desirable to shut off top waters, which may lie within 100 ft. or less of the oil sand, with 10-in. pipe. Where the depth is so great that a practical weight of 10-in. pipe will not withstand the probable collapsing pressures, 8 ¼ in. at least is desirable. About the limit of rotary drilling to date in California seems to be the setting of the 10-in. string at 3,200 ft., although the rapid advance in rotary work during the past year seems to indicate that this depth may soon be increased. It is my purpose now, however, to treat only of cable-tool drilling.

Jan 2, 1915

By F.S. Norcross

Manganese has long been considered one of the United States' most important strategic raw materials. Its indispensabil-ity in steel manufacture makes it vital to the nation's industrial life. Coupled with this indispensability is the fact that domestic producers have not been able as yet to supply more than a small part of the nation's manganese needs; consequently the United States has had to depend upon such distant foreign sources as the U.S.S.R., British India, the African Gold Coast and Brazil for the major portion of its ore. The great bulk of the mineral is consumed in the form of ferromanganese, an alloy that averages 80 per cent manganese and 20 per cent mainly iron and carbon. Manganese is used as a deoxidizer and desulphurizer in steel manufacture. By combination with the residual oxygen and sulphur of the bath, it helps to produce a clean, sound metal. Approximately 14 lb. of manganese, it is estimated, is used in making one ton of steel. For standard-grade ferromanganese, the ore should have a minimum of about 48 per cent Mn and preferably more. Beneficiation methods have not yet been developed for making the immense low-grade deposits in the United States salable at prevailing prices. Dependence upon foreign sources thrust the United States into serious difficulties during the World War. At the start of hostilities in 1914, the nation was obtaining about four-fifths of its ore from the Eastern Hemisphere. Domestic production had been negligible, amounting to only 3000 to 7000 tons a year. As the war continued, shipments from the East, endangered by sea attack and blockade, dwindled rapidly. Imports from Brazil mounted. In this grave emergency, the United States, starting almost from scratch and under the stimulus of high prices, succeeded by 1918 in producing a peak of 3II,000 tons, about 35 per cent of its consumption that year. Since the war, the United States has depended upon foreign sources for more than nine-tenths of its high-grade ore. During 1936, 1937 and 1938, imports for consumption averaged 736,000 tons a year. During the same period, domestic shipments averaged 21,000 tons a year. Of the imports, the U.S.S.R. accounted for an annual average of 280,000 tons, the Gold Coast 208,000 tons, India 74,000 tons, and Brazil 72,500 tons. But India and Brazil, which in 1936 ranked third and fourth in the list of importers, were displaced in 1937 and 1938 by a new and much nearer source—Cuba. From less than I per cent of United States imports in 1931, the island republic increased its shipments to more than 27 per cent in 1938. Cuba's average for this three-year period was 97,000 tons, and its total for 1938 was 131,000 tons. History The story of the economic development of manganese in Cuba dates back to the Spanish-American War days. John Green-way, then one of Theodore Roosevelt's

Jan 1, 1943

By C. S. Yust, J. W. Smith, J. R. Walsh, R. E. Simpson

This paper presents the results of a complete reservoir studv designed to determine a sound economic program for the conservation of oil and gas in the Pickton field, Hopkins County, Texas. The Pickton field produces from the Bacon Lime with all indications of the study being that production is predominately by dissolved-gas drive. Calculations of the total ultimate recovery to be expected under primary operations indicated only 16.7 per cent of the oil originally in place would be recovered. This unusually low recovery is due to the type of drive operating and the extremely high dissolved gas-oil ratio and shrinkage. Results are presented for six plans of returning gas to the reservoir, evaluated to determine (1) comparative recoveries and economics of (a) returning gas at a constant rate by supplementing Pickton gas with extraneous gas during the early portion of the operation, and (b) conventional gas-return operations without using extraneous gas, and (2) the optimum size of compressor plant for each type of pressure maintenance. The over-all economic program considers, for either type pressure maintenance operation. a gasoline plant to process the unusually rich casinghead gas. Since pressure maintenance will disturb equities, pooling of royalties is in the case of Pickton a prerequisite to conservation of oil by this type of operation, both from an economic and legal standpoint. In the event pooling of royalties cannot be achieved, the study considers a gasoline plant to operate under a modified primary production operation which will make the conservation of gas possible. INTRODUCTION The Pickton field, located in Hopkins County, Texas. was discovered in November, 1944. by the completion of Humble's C. D. Nichols 1, in the Bacon lime of the Lower Glen Rose formation, through perforations from 7,888 to 7.896 feet. The well initially produced 50.2 API gravity oil with a gas-oil ratio of 1,350 cubic feet per barrel. Subsurface samples of the reservoir fluid obtained soon after completion of the discovery well showed that the Pickton crude is unique in that it has an extremely high dissolved gas-oil ratio and is subject to very severe shrinkage. Calculations of the future behavior of the Pickton reservoir indicated that ultimate oil recovery by primary operations would be 3,269,000 barrels, representing only 16.7 per cent of the oil in place (19,577,000 stock-tank barrels), and that recovery could be substantially increased by returning the produced gas. The cumulative production of 1,382,694 barrels on November 1: 1947, amounted to 42.3 per cent of the estimated ultimate oil recovery from primary operations. The purpose of this study is to determine and evaluate the optimum program for conservation of oil and gas in the Pick-ton field, including the desirability of conducting gas-return operations and of installing a gasoline plant. LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION Pickton Field, The Pickton field, as shown in Fig. 1, is located in southwest Hopkins County, Texas, 12.5 miles southwest of the New Hope field, 2.7 miles northeast of the Coke field, 16 miles southwest of Sulphur Springs, and 8 miles northwest of Winnsboro, Texas.

Jan 1, 1949

By Richard V. Hughes, Rudolf J. Pfister

The necessity for getting more water into sands of low permeability in any secondary-recovery water-flood operation in order to recover all the available oil always has been a major problem. In the early days of water-flooding the addition of soda ash and caustic soda to fresh input waters was recommended and tried without success in the Bradford field. The most frequent difficulty was sand plugging. The use of natural and artificial brines often has been suggested for water-flooding, in the belief that laboratory observations of decreasing fresh-water throughput rates in measuring water permeabilities of consolidated sand cores might be partially explained by swelling of clays. A review of available literature bearing on the subject and related laboratory experiments are presented herein, offering an explanation for failure in use of soda ash and caustic soda waters and supporting the recent concept that every water used for input purposes in the secondary recovery of oil should possess such physical and chemical characteristics as to keep the clay content of the producing sands in a permanently flocculated condition. Produced brines meet this requirement. Their use is recommended as a means of increasing intake rates of tight sands and oil recoveries, as a solution to brine-disposal problems, and as a means of conserving a natural resource. Introduction There is a general belief among those engaged in the secondary recovery of oil by water-flooding that one of the most important requirements for the success of any such project is an adequate supply of good, fresh water. Fresh waters have the advantages of being more easily stabilized than salt waters and of being usable about the lease for all purposes. The use of brines for water-flooding never has been given much consideration in the Pennsylvania Grade area. The use of brines in Mid-Continent operations has been considered largely as a substitute for fresh waters, which were economically unobtainable for many operations. Estimated recoveries for some water-drive fields indicate that less of the original oil in place will be left upon abandonment than with the above-average practices used in Pennsylvania Grade water-flood operations. Lower residual oil saturations than 25 pct of the pore space following the water-flooding of Third Bradford sand cores in the laboratory are unusual. In comparison, water-flushed sands surrounding any virgin oil pool are found to be practically devoid of oil. Such lower natural residual oil saturations may be the result of a time factor much longer than economic under artificial water-flood operations, but neither the producer of primary oil nor the producer of oil by secondary recovery can obtain maximum recoveries unless full advantage is taken of all natural forces and

Jan 1, 1947

By F. S. Norcross

Manganese has long been considered one of the United States' most important strategic raw materials. Its indispensabil-ity in steel manufacture makes it vital to the nation's industrial life. Coupled with this indispensability is the fact that domestic producers have not been able as yet to supply more than a small part of the nation's manganese needs; consequently the United States has had to depend upon such distant foreign sources as the U.S.S.R., British India, the African Gold Coast and Brazil for the major portion of its ore. The great bulk of the mineral is consumed in the form of ferromanganese, an alloy that averages 80 per cent manganese and 20 per cent mainly iron and carbon. Manganese is used as a deoxidizer and desulphurizer in steel manufacture. By combination with the residual oxygen and sulphur of the bath, it helps to produce a clean, sound metal. Approximately 14 lb. of manganese, it is estimated, is used in making one ton of steel. For standard-grade ferromanganese, the ore should have a minimum of about 48 per cent Mn and preferably more. Beneficiation methods have not yet been developed for making the immense low-grade deposits in the United States salable at prevailing prices. Dependence upon foreign sources thrust the United States into serious difficulties during the World War. At the start of hostilities in 1914, the nation was obtaining about four-fifths of its ore from the Eastern Hemisphere. Domestic production had been negligible, amounting to only 3000 to 7000 tons a year. As the war continued, shipments from the East, endangered by sea attack and blockade, dwindled rapidly. Imports from Brazil mounted. In this grave emergency, the United States, starting almost from scratch and under the stimulus of high prices, succeeded by 1918 in producing a peak of 3II,000 tons, about 35 per cent of its consumption that year. Since the war, the United States has depended upon foreign sources for more than nine-tenths of its high-grade ore. During 1936, 1937 and 1938, imports for consumption averaged 736,000 tons a year. During the same period, domestic shipments averaged 21,000 tons a year. Of the imports, the U.S.S.R. accounted for an annual average of 280,000 tons, the Gold Coast 208,000 tons, India 74,000 tons, and Brazil 72,500 tons. But India and Brazil, which in 1936 ranked third and fourth in the list of importers, were displaced in 1937 and 1938 by a new and much nearer source—Cuba. From less than I per cent of United States imports in 1931, the island republic increased its shipments to more than 27 per cent in 1938. Cuba's average for this three-year period was 97,000 tons, and its total for 1938 was 131,000 tons. History The story of the economic development of manganese in Cuba dates back to the Spanish-American War days. John Green-way, then one of Theodore Roosevelt's

Jan 1, 1943

By C. S. Yust, J. W. Smith, J. R. Walsh, R. E. Simpson

This paper presents the results of a complete reservoir studv designed to determine a sound economic program for the conservation of oil and gas in the Pickton field, Hopkins County, Texas. The Pickton field produces from the Bacon Lime with all indications of the study being that production is predominately by dissolved-gas drive. Calculations of the total ultimate recovery to be expected under primary operations indicated only 16.7 per cent of the oil originally in place would be recovered. This unusually low recovery is due to the type of drive operating and the extremely high dissolved gas-oil ratio and shrinkage. Results are presented for six plans of returning gas to the reservoir, evaluated to determine (1) comparative recoveries and economics of (a) returning gas at a constant rate by supplementing Pickton gas with extraneous gas during the early portion of the operation, and (b) conventional gas-return operations without using extraneous gas, and (2) the optimum size of compressor plant for each type of pressure maintenance. The over-all economic program considers, for either type pressure maintenance operation. a gasoline plant to process the unusually rich casinghead gas. Since pressure maintenance will disturb equities, pooling of royalties is in the case of Pickton a prerequisite to conservation of oil by this type of operation, both from an economic and legal standpoint. In the event pooling of royalties cannot be achieved, the study considers a gasoline plant to operate under a modified primary production operation which will make the conservation of gas possible. INTRODUCTION The Pickton field, located in Hopkins County, Texas. was discovered in November, 1944. by the completion of Humble's C. D. Nichols 1, in the Bacon lime of the Lower Glen Rose formation, through perforations from 7,888 to 7.896 feet. The well initially produced 50.2 API gravity oil with a gas-oil ratio of 1,350 cubic feet per barrel. Subsurface samples of the reservoir fluid obtained soon after completion of the discovery well showed that the Pickton crude is unique in that it has an extremely high dissolved gas-oil ratio and is subject to very severe shrinkage. Calculations of the future behavior of the Pickton reservoir indicated that ultimate oil recovery by primary operations would be 3,269,000 barrels, representing only 16.7 per cent of the oil in place (19,577,000 stock-tank barrels), and that recovery could be substantially increased by returning the produced gas. The cumulative production of 1,382,694 barrels on November 1: 1947, amounted to 42.3 per cent of the estimated ultimate oil recovery from primary operations. The purpose of this study is to determine and evaluate the optimum program for conservation of oil and gas in the Pick-ton field, including the desirability of conducting gas-return operations and of installing a gasoline plant. LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION Pickton Field, The Pickton field, as shown in Fig. 1, is located in southwest Hopkins County, Texas, 12.5 miles southwest of the New Hope field, 2.7 miles northeast of the Coke field, 16 miles southwest of Sulphur Springs, and 8 miles northwest of Winnsboro, Texas.

Jan 1, 1949

By Richard V. Hughes, Rudolf J. Pfister

The necessity for getting more water into sands of low permeability in any secondary-recovery water-flood operation in order to recover all the available oil always has been a major problem. In the early days of water-flooding the addition of soda ash and caustic soda to fresh input waters was recommended and tried without success in the Bradford field. The most frequent difficulty was sand plugging. The use of natural and artificial brines often has been suggested for water-flooding, in the belief that laboratory observations of decreasing fresh-water throughput rates in measuring water permeabilities of consolidated sand cores might be partially explained by swelling of clays. A review of available literature bearing on the subject and related laboratory experiments are presented herein, offering an explanation for failure in use of soda ash and caustic soda waters and supporting the recent concept that every water used for input purposes in the secondary recovery of oil should possess such physical and chemical characteristics as to keep the clay content of the producing sands in a permanently flocculated condition. Produced brines meet this requirement. Their use is recommended as a means of increasing intake rates of tight sands and oil recoveries, as a solution to brine-disposal problems, and as a means of conserving a natural resource. Introduction There is a general belief among those engaged in the secondary recovery of oil by water-flooding that one of the most important requirements for the success of any such project is an adequate supply of good, fresh water. Fresh waters have the advantages of being more easily stabilized than salt waters and of being usable about the lease for all purposes. The use of brines for water-flooding never has been given much consideration in the Pennsylvania Grade area. The use of brines in Mid-Continent operations has been considered largely as a substitute for fresh waters, which were economically unobtainable for many operations. Estimated recoveries for some water-drive fields indicate that less of the original oil in place will be left upon abandonment than with the above-average practices used in Pennsylvania Grade water-flood operations. Lower residual oil saturations than 25 pct of the pore space following the water-flooding of Third Bradford sand cores in the laboratory are unusual. In comparison, water-flushed sands surrounding any virgin oil pool are found to be practically devoid of oil. Such lower natural residual oil saturations may be the result of a time factor much longer than economic under artificial water-flood operations, but neither the producer of primary oil nor the producer of oil by secondary recovery can obtain maximum recoveries unless full advantage is taken of all natural forces and

Jan 1, 1947

By William Fink

THE constitution of the aluminum-cobalt alloys has been the subject of relatively few investigations. Brunck1 analyzed the residue which remained after treating the 17 per cent cobalt alloy with dilute hydrochloric acid. The results of the analyses indicated the existence of a compound Co3Al13. Guillet2 published a liquidus for the aluminum-cobalt system which contained two maxima corresponding to CoAl6 and CoAl2 and two eutectic points at 30 and 74 per cent Co. The most extensive investigation of the system was carried out by Gwyer,3 whose results are summarized in Fig. 1. It will be noted that at the aluminum end there is a suppressed eutectic at 644° C. By extrapolation of the duration of the eutectic arrest to zero, the composition of the compound was placed at Co3Al13. Another thermal arrest was noted at 550° C., which Gwyer attributed to a peritectic reaction. The present investigation of the aluminum end of the aluminum-cobalt system is the eleventh of a series dealing with the constitution of aluminum; rich alloys prepared from electrolytically refined aluminum.4 Preparation of Alloys.-The alloys used in this work were all prepared from electrolytically refined aluminum, the analysis of which is shown in Table 1. In preparing some of the alloys, metallic cobalt (98 to 99 per cent) was used either directly or in the form of an intermediate alloy, the composition of which is given in Table 1. In order to obtain alloys of higher purity, cobalt was introduced into some of the alloys by means of chemically pure cobaltous chloride which was readily reduced by the aluminum. A small electric furnace with nickel-chromium heating elements was used in the preparation of the alloys.

Jan 1, 1932

By Charles C. Russell

Pressures developed by the coal during the coking process have been responsible for serious trouble to many companies that operate or build by-product coke ovens. The insidious nature of this trouble is indicated by the fact that oven operators, unless they have ascertained the characteristics of the coals they use, cannot determine the existence of dangerous pressures until after the damage has been done. A rather popular misconception is that ease of pushing of the charge at the completion of the coking period indicates that no dangerous pressure has been developed, but this is far from the truth; pressures developed during the coking period are often completely dissipated by the shrinkage of the charge in the completion of coking, and so any criterion based on the ease of pushing is futile. However, methods of testing coals are available that will definitely distinguish the dangerous coals from those that are safe, and such methods have been brought to a high degree of certainty. The operator should take no risk that involves either a lack of knowledge of the behavior of coals during coking or the failure to believe that certain of the coals or coal mixtures can cause damage to the oven structure. This merely tends to minimize the problem and leads to claims that coking coals of all kinds may be carbonized with no danger of damage to the oven structure provided some particular kind of byproduct oven is used. This lack of appreciation of the true situation is in itself one of the main factors leading to damage of coke-oven structures. Coals that develop more than a certain safe pressure cannot be used in by-product coke ovens without causing damage to the side flue walls. The following paper presents a highly certain method for the measurement of the pressures developed during the carbonization of coal—a method that is the culmination of many years of work on the problem in which a number of methods for the purpose were investigated and used. While actual pressures found may appear to be small when expressed in pounds per square inch, the number of square inches in each oven wall is so large that the total pressure on the oven wall becomes an enormous load.

Jan 1, 1940

By J. J. B. Rutherford

IT is now well known that troublesome intercrystalline corrosion may occur in austenitic stainless steels following exposure of the metal to a temperature within the range 1000° to 1500° F. (540° to 815° C.). The present paper describes a satisfactory method of estimating the extent of such corrosion, based on the measurement of the electrical resistance of a specimen before and after attack. This new method enabled us to study quantitatively the effect of several factors upon intergranular corrosion in the 18 Cr, 8 Ni type of alloy. The results show that susceptibility to this attack increases with increasing carbon content and grain size and appears to pass through a maximum for certain combinations of temperature of sensitization and period during which the alloy was maintained at that temperature; and are in complete accord with our interpretation of the mechanism of this phenomenon. The method is probably applicable to other metals or alloys subject to intercrystalline attack, such as the aluminum alloys of the duralumin type. The methods hitherto in use for estimating the degree of intergranular attack fall into three types: (1) microscopic examination,1 (2) macroscopic examination of fractures, and (3) determination of the time required for complete failure or disintegration .2 None of these lends itself very well to a measurement of the extent of corrosion. The first two are qualitative in nature and the third provides an arbitrary value largely dependent on individual judgment, since failure is a progressive phenomenon and not a sudden event. Our experience is that weight-loss determinations, although valuable in some types of corrosion investigations, bear no simple relation to intercrystalline corrosion in this type of alloy, as is to be expected since the phenomenon probably involves only the thinnest films between adjacent metallic grains.

Jan 1, 1932

By B. F. Tillson

HAVING been asked to talk about recent devel-opments in mining equipment, I chose the sub-ject of small units of storage-battery locomo-tives which recently have been developed with the idea of motorizing transportation in the mines as far as possible, replacing the manual labor of hand-tramming. Metal mines are probably less advanced in this field than coal mines, where transportation of large ton-nages on any one level is quite common. Of course, metal mines, where large tonnages are handled on any one level, are as advanced as coal mines, and storage-battery locomotives for main haulages are used quite commonly in such metal mines, but the mines having levels at many intervals in the depth of the orebody, or a number of intermediate levels in which a consider-able amount of hand-tramming has to be done, and small metal mines in which the size of the orebody does not seem to warrant the initial capital expenditure for the driving of main haulage levels and installation of rock and ore chutes and raises for the delivery of the broken ore and rock to the cars have been at consider-able disadvantage in replacing manual labor by some mechanical means of transportation. Several years ago the field was canvassed among the manufacturers of electric-locomotive equipment and the conclusion was reached that the art had not been devel-oped to the advantage of metal miners who desire to replace small units of labor by locomotive equipment. The need for such small locomotives is all the more em-phasized by the development in the past few years of mechanical mucking-machines (loading equipment for filling the cars from muck piles on the level). Any me-chanical loader is a liability instead of an asset unless means are also provided for keeping the material away from the loading-machines. Therefore the transporta-tion system must be equal to the capacity of a loading-machine, otherwise the latter is idle such a large per-centage of its time as to prove an unprofitable invest-ment. So there is a need for portable, small haulage units to handle small mine cars in many metal mines, and, naturally, units are desired which can be so readily shifted from level to level as to facilitate their free use. Of course, in mines in which each level comes to the shaft it is not such a difficult problem, but many mines have a great many intermediate levels which must be approached through raises, timber slides or other small openings required to transfer ore and to get timber and other supplies to those levels.

Jan 5, 1927

By Charles C. Russell

Pressures developed by the coal during the coking process have been responsible for serious trouble to many companies that operate or build by-product coke ovens. The insidious nature of this trouble is indicated by the fact that oven operators, unless they have ascertained the characteristics of the coals they use, cannot determine the existence of dangerous pressures until after the damage has been done. A rather popular misconception is that ease of pushing of the charge at the completion of the coking period indicates that no dangerous pressure has been developed, but this is far from the truth; pressures developed during the coking period are often completely dissipated by the shrinkage of the charge in the completion of coking, and so any criterion based on the ease of pushing is futile. However, methods of testing coals are available that will definitely distinguish the dangerous coals from those that are safe, and such methods have been brought to a high degree of certainty. The operator should take no risk that involves either a lack of knowledge of the behavior of coals during coking or the failure to believe that certain of the coals or coal mixtures can cause damage to the oven structure. This merely tends to minimize the problem and leads to claims that coking coals of all kinds may be carbonized with no danger of damage to the oven structure provided some particular kind of byproduct oven is used. This lack of appreciation of the true situation is in itself one of the main factors leading to damage of coke-oven structures. Coals that develop more than a certain safe pressure cannot be used in by-product coke ovens without causing damage to the side flue walls. The following paper presents a highly certain method for the measurement of the pressures developed during the carbonization of coal—a method that is the culmination of many years of work on the problem in which a number of methods for the purpose were investigated and used. While actual pressures found may appear to be small when expressed in pounds per square inch, the number of square inches in each oven wall is so large that the total pressure on the oven wall becomes an enormous load.

Jan 1, 1940

I. PRESIDING OFFICER, At all business meetings of the Institute the President, or, in his absence, the First Vice-President, or, in the absence of both of them, any other Vice-President or Director, chosen by the meeting, shall preside. At all other meetings of the Institute the President, or, in his absence, one of the Vice-presidents shall preside. If none of these be present the meeting shall elect a Chairman. The President shall do and perform such other duties as may from time to time be assigned to him by resolution of the Board of Directors of the Institute. II. ORDER OF BUSINESS. At each business meeting of the Institute the order of business shall be as follows: 1. Reading of minutes of preceding meeting. 2. Report of the President, 3. Report of the Treasurer. 4. Report of the Secretary. 5. Election of Directors. 6, Reports of Standing Committees. 7. Reports of Special Committees. 8. Special Orders. 9. Miscellaneous business. This order of business may be changed at any meeting, by a vote of a majority of the Members and Associates present. At all sessions of the Institute, other than business meetings, the order of proceedings and the time of adjournment shall rest in the discretion of the presiding officer. III. SECRETARY OF THE INSTITUTE. The Secretary shall keep a record of the proceedings of all the meetings of the Institute, He shall be custodian of the corporate seal, of the minute books and of all the legal documents belonging to the Institute. He shall have charge on behalf of the Institute of all correspondence. He shall notify all Officers and Directors and all members of committees of their election and appointment; shall issue notices of all meetings of the Board, and of the annual and other business meetings of the Institute; and shall, in calling special meetings of the Directors, specify the objects of such meetings. He shall act as clerk at all the meetings of the Board of Directors and at all meetings of the Institute, The Secretary shall be custodian of all technical or scientific papers submitted to the Institute for its consideration and shall have general charge and supervision of the editing and proof-reading of all material published by the Institute, and of the distribution thereof. The Secretary shall be the custodian of all back numbers of the Transactions and other publications of the Institute. There shall be kept under his direction an account in ledger form of all such back numbers, He shall on the first day of January of each year submit to the Library Committee a statement of the number of copies of Transactions, magazines and other publications printed during the preceding year, giving the number distributed and remaining undistributed; also a statement covering additions to and withdrawals from the total stock of Institute publications, with the number 'remaining on hand at date of statement,

Jan 1, 1928