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By C. H. Wilson, J. W. Daly, J. J. Jakosky

Meteor Crater, Arizona, is a natural wonder which for years has been the subject of considerable discussion and study as to its origin and age (Fig. 1). Of the various theories advanced regarding the origin, two have been considered as most probable by a majority of investigators. The first theory is that the crater was formed by a meteorite or a swarm of meteoric material striking the earth at a high velocity and burying itself. The second theory is that the crater was formed by a "steam explosion" from hot solutions or gases coming from underneath the present sedimentary beds which overlie the area. In order to obtain more detailed information regarding the conditions existing at the crater, the present management decided to have a detailed geophysical examination made. The origin of the crater is of considerable scientific importance and interest. More or less active mining operations have been carried out during the past 20 years by various groups who believed that the crater was of meteoric origin, and who hoped that sufficient quantities of such material had been buried to be commercially valuable. Fragments of meteoric material found on the surface of the ground in the debris around the rim gave analysis of approximately 92 per cent iron and 8 per cent nickel, with some platinum and iridium. The material having a gross value of approximately $50 per ton, mining would be commercially profitable if sufficient quantities of the material existed in condition for mining. In the early work numerous drill holes and shallow shafts were put down, mainly in the northern portion of the crater. Pulverized material and debris caused considerable difficulty, and in an effort to overcome this the present management started a 1500-ft., two-compartment shaft on the south rim of the crater and outside of the fill zone. The intention was to sink the shaft in the solid rock outside of the crater, and then to crosscut toward the crater at a depth of 1500 ft. The work was finally stopped when a depth of 650 ft. was reached, because water poured into the shaft through large cracks and fissures in the rock. The enormous force responsible for the crater had also broken

Jan 1, 1932

ALTHOUGH the refining period of the heat is generally defined A as starting after the charge has been completely melted, it may more properly be considered as beginning with the first efforts to facilitate the shaping up of the slag and the making of corrective additions for the control of slag or metal composition. Such actions may be initiated during the latter half of the lime boil. The early part of the refining period may, then, in essence overlap the latter part of the melting period. The primary aims of the refining period are: (1) to reduce phosphorus and sulfur from the steel bath to levels safely below the maximum contents specified; (2) to eliminate carbon to a specified level as rapidly as possible and still allow time for proper conditioning of the slag and attainment of the necessary bath temperature; and (3) to have the heat ready for tapping or furnace deoxidation, with slag in the proper physical and chemical condition, and with carbon and oxygen contents and the temperature of the steel at the proper levels for the composition and grade of steel being produced. The particular conditions that fulfill these aims are distinctly different, depending upon whether the steel is to be finished according to fully killed semikilled, or rimming practice and also depending upon the carbon range specified. Regardless of the type of charging practice employed, the object of the refining period is to produce repeatedly the desired finishing and tapping conditions for the grade of steel being produced. The variations and proportions of raw materials used in the charge may cause some variations in the degree of control required during refining, but not in the method of control. The refining period can therefore be discussed from a viewpoint largely independent of charging and melting practice. SHAPING UP THE SLAG In the first helper's vocabulary, refining practice consists in

Jan 1, 1964

THE developments in construction and operation of the basic open-hearth furnace that have taken place in recent years have placed new emphasis on the vital influence played by regulation and control of the combustion system in both furnace production and furnace life. The several factors influencing flame development, such as regulation of fuel supply, air supply, air preheat, furnace draft, and furnace reversal, must be controlled closely if successful furnace performance is to be accomplished. Rugged instrumentation of distinctive design is required to supply dependable information concerning operating conditions, which is requisite to proper regulation of combustion. This chapter attempts to give a practical discussion of the various features of open-hearth practice and instrumentation related to the efficient heating of the furnace, control of temperature, and protection of the furnace structure from accidental overheating. The appended references will be helpful to readers wanting a more detailed treatment of individual topics. OPEN-HEARTH FUELS The most important open-hearth fuels are listed in Table 4-1 together with their compositions and other data useful for combustion calculations. A detailed discussion of open-hearth fuels is not attempted here, but certain factors peculiar to their application to this type of process are briefly indicated on the following pages. Very often an open-hearth shop is forced by economic factors to use a fuel to which its furnaces are not very well adapted, because the general fuel-allocation scheme for the works as a whole seems to demand it. Often a variable marginal supply of coke-oven gas or tar must be consumed by the open hearth, together with another fuel such as producer gas, natural gas, or oil, to fill out total requirements. Most furnaces employ more than one kind of fuel during their usefu1 life; however, the partial redesign

Jan 1, 1951

By Alden Greninger

IN a recent study1 of the deformation of metastable beta copper-zinc and beta copper-tin crystals, it was established that the parallel markings that appear on the surface of these crystals after slight deformation represent lattice transformations. Stereographic analysis showed that in beta copper-tin, the poles of these markings deviated one or two degrees from poles of the form { 133 } . In beta copper-zinc the plane delineated by the markings corresponded to no one crystallographic plane of the matrix lattice; the marking poles deviated from 5° to 11° from poles of the form {110}, and were displaced only a few degrees from (110) zones. Inasmuch as the new transition lattices produced as the result of the deformation are different for each alloy, it was thought at first that the habits of the markings might be the result of a cooperation between matrix lattice and transformed lattice. (Both matrix lattices are body-centered cubic.) Such a cooperative effect is thought to obtain in the formation of Widmanstätten figures, for it is well known that the matrix lattice alone does not determine the habit assumed by a segregate phase. On the other hand, it is not inconceivable that the dissimilarity in mark-ing habit might be due to differences in deformation characteristics of beta brass and beta bronze. Barrett and co-workers2 have shown that slip-line habits in pure iron are markedly different from those in high-silicon ferrite; and although it has been repeatedly demonstrated that plates of a segregate phase do not necessarily form on the slip planes of the matrix lattice, deformation characteristics may be more intimately allied with plate formation when a transformation is made to occur as a result of plastic deformation. However, there is the fact that the orienta-tion of markings in metastable beta copper-zinc is the same whether the markings be produced by quenching, deformation, or liquid-air cooling; likewise, quenching and deformation markings in metastable beta copper-tin are oriented in the same way with respect to the beta matrix.

Jan 1, 1938

By Benjamin Webber

MANY of the auriferous placers of the arid Southwest differ widely from the standard types of stream and eluvial deposits of more humid regions, although exhibiting some of the features of each. This diver-gence in characteristics is of geological and economic importance and appears sufficient to warrant the consideration of these placers as a class distinct from both stream and eluvial deposits. It is hoped that the consideration of these auriferous gravels as a distinct type of deposit will facilitate recognition of morphological and economic features that might remain obscure if these deposits were viewed in the light of stream or eluvial placers whose type locality is a more humid environment. "Bajada placer" is proposed as the designation for this type of placer deposit. Bajada is the Spanish term for slope and is used locally in the Southwest to indicate the lower slope of a mountain range, the portion consisting of rock debris and standing at a much lower angle than the rock slope of the range proper. It has been used in a geologic sense by Schrader1 and others. The type locality of bajada placers is the Sonoran Desert,2 where they occur on the bajada or rock debris slope of desert ranges. Stream placers are represented in the Southwest, but most of them lie within the mountain topographic province, the Mexican Highlands2 section of, the Basin and Range physiographic province. Eluvial placers may occur in the mountainous semiarid Mexican Highlands but are almost unknown in the extremely arid Sonoran Desert, as mountain slopes are generally too steep to permit the accumulation of any considerable mantle of residual debris. Since their salient distinctions are almost wholly the result of formation under conditions of extreme aridity, bajada placers are largely confined to the Sonoran Desert, although a few occur in the adjacent Mexican High-lands. They may be modified by the action of ephemeral streams, in which case the placer gravels of these arroyas approach stream placers in type and habit of occurrence, but their relation to an arid environment and the bajada type is usually apparent.

Jan 1, 1935

By O. Chanute

In discussion of Mr. Macdonald's paper, I can say little more thau to add t~ the general acknowledgments of iguorae, and like several of the gentlemen who have preceded me, make one of those confessions which are thought to be good for the soul. Having had some experience in the erection of bridges during past years, I am aware that We yet need much information in order to proportion them to the best advantage. I would more especially like to emphasize three of the points mentioned by Mr. Macdonald, as among those upon which we lack knowledge; these are: first, the behavior of steel; second, the proportions of compression members; and, third, the influence of the size of a bar upon its strength per square inch. First, as to steel. While we all acknowledge this as the material of the future, our position map be said to be still one of expectaucy. Feu? engineers are bold enough to employ it largely in bridges, and those who do, find such serious difficulties in obtaining uniform grades of it, are so puzzled by apparent anomalies and unexpected phenomena, that it requires considerable faith and courage to apply it in large structural masses. A series of systematic experiments,

Jan 1, 1882

By A. J. Phillips, C. G. Grant, Wm. B. Price

Admiralty nickel is a new corrosion-resisting and heat-resisting white metal alloy composed of 70 per cent. copper, 29 per cent. nickel and 1 per cent. tin. It has been given the trade name "Adnic." In 1924, Wm. B. Price' described this alloy and its successful use as a diaphragm metal. The physical properties of Adnic at ordinary and elevated temperatures were given in Mining & Metallury.~ A patent3 was granted on Adnic, April 28, 1925. Work was first started on this alloy during December, 1921. An investigation of the patent situation in this country and abroad, and also a search of the literature, did not reveal any work on the ternary diagram, copper-nickel-tin; and the only wrought copper-nickel-tin alloy found was that known as "Newloy," composed of copper, 64 per cent.; nickel, 35 per cent.; tin, 1 per cent. This was being manufactured and sold by Wm. Gallimorr & Sons, Ltd., Sheffield, England, for unplated spoon and fork stock, and first came to our attention in January, 1922. The preliminary work in connection with the development of Adnic was started by casting four binary copper-nickel alloys of the compositions shown in Table 1. Various a~ilounts of tin were added to each of these mixtures, to produce the series of ternary copper-nickel-tin alloys also given in Table 1. A 200-gm. sample of each of these was cast by iiielting in a clay graphite crucible and allowing the melt to slowly cool with the furnace. A longitudinal section from each of thcsc castings was polished and etched for examination. The castings were not homogenrous solid solutions, but showed the usual cored structure associated with cast alloys. Howcvrr, frorn an exarrlination of these sections we roughly determined

By Floyd C. Kelley

THE literature of the last decade is rich with information relating to the cause and means of control of grain growth in pure metals, but is deficient concerning the role diffusion plays in grain growth, although during this period many new products that depend on diffusion for their properties and success have been developed. Among these are cementation products, produced by calorizing, chromizing, and carbonizing, or by mixing, pressing, and sintering powdered metals such as Syke's iron-molybdenum die material, Genelite, and Elcon Metal (copper, tungsten) etc. This is a fertile field for new developments, but before it can be utilized to the fullest extent there must be a thorough investigation of the processes by which diffusion and grain growth take place. Grain growth plays no small part in the process and certainly the physical properties of these products depend largely on the grain size and state of equilibrium produced. The field of investigation does not end here, but may be extended to the effect of diffusion on impurities, segregations and dendrites in the broad field of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. A number of years ago the author investigated several of these cases and noted, with striking regularity, the pronounced effect of diffusion in promoting recrystallization and grain growth. An example of this phenomenon is given in his paper on chromizing1 which contained photomicrographs of large radial or columnar crystals produced by diffusion of chromium in the solid state. Another manifestation of this effect was discussed by Austen,2 who showed the part hydrogen plays in the decarburization of steel and the effect of diffusion upon the grain structure. DIFFUSION OF METALS IN IRON It seems to be a general law, whenever two metals are brought into intimate contact at a temperature at which diffusion takes place, that a comparatively rapid, or abnormal, grain growth results. The grains

Jan 1, 1928

By P. W. Bakarian, C. H. Mathewson

THE greater part of the literature on the plastic behavior of magnesium dates back to that active period of research in crystal mechanics immediately following the widespread preparation of isolated metallic crystals large enough for the application of conventional methods of mechanical testing. These investigations, performed on single crystals, revealed an analogy between zinc and magnesium with respect to their fundamental mode of deformation, in the operation of glide and twinning, respectively, on crystallographically similar planes. Mathewson and Phillips (1928)1 by geometrical analysis identified the {102} ? plane in magnesium as the twinning plane, Schiebold and Siebel (1931)2 confirmed this twinning plane, established the basal plane as the plane of slip, and a digonal axis I as the slip direction. They also reported twin formation in a secondary role on the {101} plane. Schmid (1931)3 summarized and discussed the earlier evidence and presented the results of his own experiments on the effect of temperature and small amounts of soluble elements. From X-ray studies on extended wire single crystals, he concluded that slip along the basal plane in the direction of the digonal axis I closest to the stress direction was the sole slip system operating at atmospheric temperature. This conclusion was based on experiments with crystals of many different orientations relative to the stress axis. Special attention was directed to the basal plane and the digonal axis I, as the plane and direction of greatest atomic density. Determinations of resolved shear stress at the onset of plastic yielding-i.e., the critical resolved shear stress-were also made; the average of these calculations showing 82.9 grams per sq. mm. This value varied only slightly up to 300°C., at which temperature it was found to decrease to 70.5 grams per sq. mm. The extension of his crystals at temperatures above 225°C. further disclosed the presence of new slip systems. After the original specimens of circular section had been

Jan 1, 1943

Gentlemen of the American Institute of Mining Engineers.—As you well know an application is about to be made to Congress, by the American Society of Civil Engineers, for the appointment of a cornmission composed of persons skilled in the production and use of iron, steel, and other structural materials, whose duty it shall be to test the strength, elasticity, and other quatities of such materials ; not simply the substances used as such, but the members of large structures composed of such materials, of the forms and sizes in which they are actually used. As I understand, the papers that will be read here to-night will have for their object to show the necessity for such tests, and therefore the necessity for the commission asked for. As the representative of the Society of Civil Engineers, I have to thank you, gentlemen of the Mining Engineers, for the great zeal with which yon have taken up this subject, and seconded the efforts of the Civil Engineers; or, perhaps I ought rather to say, initiated the efforts to get a suitable commission appointed to obtain most vitally important information which it is admitted on all hands we do not now possess. In drawing up the memorial to Congress, in connection with some of the ablest and best informed of our Society, and in all the discossions on the subject, I have been struck with the emphasis with which the confession is made, that so little is known of the strength of the larger-sized members constantly used in building structures of the magnitude which the present requirements of the country now demand. I presume the remarks made to-night will bring this out very prominently. This is no disgrace, for with the means here-

Jan 1, 1882

By Herbert Clark Hoover, Lou Henry Hoover

IN the last book I have explained the methods of delimiting- the meers along each kind of vein, and the duties of mine officials. In this book1 I will in like manner explain the principles of underground mining and the art of surveying. First then, I will proceed to deal with those matters which pertain to the former heading, since both the subject and methodical arrangement require it. And so I will describe first of all the digging of shafts, tunnels, and drifts on venae profundae; next I will discuss the good indications shown by canales2, by the materials which are dug out, and by the rocks ; then I will speak of the tools by which veins and rocks are broken down and excavated ; the method by which fire shatters the hard veins ; and further, of the machines with which water is drawn from the shafts and air is forced into deep shafts and long tunnels, for digging is impeded by the inrush of the former or the failure of the latter ; next I will deal with the two kinds of shafts, and with the making of them and of tunnels ; and finally, I will describe the method of mining venae dilatatae, venae cumulatae, and stringers.

Jan 1, 1950

By Hallan N. Marsh, Bruce H. Robinson

It is generally believed that the flowing of wells through tubing instead of casing results in the conservation of gas. It is further believed that use of tubing prolongs the flowing life of a well and results in greater ultimate recovery, provided either that there are no adjacent wells, or that any adjacent wells are similarly operated. Recent experience in the flowing of Buckbee zone wells at Santa Fe Springs has not only substantiated both of these beliefs but has led to the further conclusion that the use of tubing results in a greater cumulative flowing production, ' even in a highly competitive field like Santa Fe Springs, where the wells concerned are closely offset by wells of both the same and other companies flowing through casing. Further, gas-oil ratio has been so reduced that greater ultimate recovery can be expected. In the belief that such would be the case, the majority of the Buckbee zone wells of one company were brought in through tubing, but enough wells were flowed through casing to form the basis for a comparison. For the purpose of this comparison, wells with flow strings 2½ or 3-in. dia. are designated as tubed wells, while those having flow strings larger than 3-in. dia. are designated as untubed wells. Casing used was mostly of 5 ¾-in. dia., the remainder being of 4¾-in. dia. There were 15 tubed wells and 8 untubed wells and they were scattered over the field in such a way that neither group appears to have any distinct advantage as regards location. Locations of all wells involved in the comparison are shown on Fig. 1. All the Buckbee sand wells of the company are included in the average production curves, with the exception of eight that were unsatisfactory for reasons other than the method of flowing. Findings 1. Buckbee sand wells flowing through casing larger than 3 in. had an average maximum production rate of 4670 bbl. per day, while wells flowed through straight tubing or 3-in. casing had an average maximum production of only 3300 bbl. per day. (See Fig. 2.)

Jan 1, 1932

By John S. Johnson

The maintenance cost, or renewal cost, in any preparation plant is a large item of expense and reflects in the total cost of producing and preparing the ton of coal. It is given constant study to the end that ways and means of controlling and reducing this proportion of the total cost may be developed. Study of this item of cost has proceeded along usual lines, which are: proper functioning of the maintenance organization; systematic and thorough inspection to prevent breakdonns; the making of repairs before renewals are needed; maintenance work done thoroughly the first time, instead of patching, study of parts needing frequent renewal or repairs or conditions resulting in delays, thorough knowledge of cost by the mall responsible for maintenance; and the use of special equipment and materials. This paper is to deal with special equipment and materials to reduce the maintenance cost hut before going into that I want to express an opinion on the general subject. Maintenance Organization Usually maintenance is taken care of by a group of men who perform their work on the off shift. The work is arranged by the operating official who should be thoroughly familiar with maintenance, so that materials needed may be made up for the particular job and waste of time in looking up materials be prevented. To perfect the maintenance organization, all operating attendants should be thoroughly trained to be familiar with all working parts of their equipment, to make a thorough inspection and to write out the slip for the work required. This requires job analysis, but it is worth the effort, because the attendant usually is better informed than anyone else about his particular equipment. The operating official can judge the scope of the work to direct the repair and to have material ready. Lubrication is an important item in maintenance, and a subject by itself. Usually the breaker oiler is designated to perform this task. This man should be picked for his ability and put in line for promotion to machinist. He should be trained as an inspector, as he is constantly visiting most parts of the breaker and has an opportunity to observe needed maintenance. The first thing is to lay out maintenance work and arrange to have it done; the next is to check the work and see that it has been properly done. This check should be made by the operating official, and through the attendant. The cost statement showing the various items of maintenance cost is not often understood by the man in direct charge. Cost sheets should be simplified and worked up by breaker sections; e.g., the cost of

Jan 1, 1947

By John S. Johnson

The maintenance cost, or renewal cost, in any preparation plant is a large item of expense and reflects in the total cost of producing and preparing the ton of coal. It is given constant study to the end that ways and means of controlling and reducing this proportion of the total cost may be developed. Study of this item of cost has proceeded along usual lines, which are: proper functioning of the maintenance organization; systematic and thorough inspection to prevent breakdonns; the making of repairs before renewals are needed; maintenance work done thoroughly the first time, instead of patching, study of parts needing frequent renewal or repairs or conditions resulting in delays, thorough knowledge of cost by the mall responsible for maintenance; and the use of special equipment and materials. This paper is to deal with special equipment and materials to reduce the maintenance cost hut before going into that I want to express an opinion on the general subject. Maintenance Organization Usually maintenance is taken care of by a group of men who perform their work on the off shift. The work is arranged by the operating official who should be thoroughly familiar with maintenance, so that materials needed may be made up for the particular job and waste of time in looking up materials be prevented. To perfect the maintenance organization, all operating attendants should be thoroughly trained to be familiar with all working parts of their equipment, to make a thorough inspection and to write out the slip for the work required. This requires job analysis, but it is worth the effort, because the attendant usually is better informed than anyone else about his particular equipment. The operating official can judge the scope of the work to direct the repair and to have material ready. Lubrication is an important item in maintenance, and a subject by itself. Usually the breaker oiler is designated to perform this task. This man should be picked for his ability and put in line for promotion to machinist. He should be trained as an inspector, as he is constantly visiting most parts of the breaker and has an opportunity to observe needed maintenance. The first thing is to lay out maintenance work and arrange to have it done; the next is to check the work and see that it has been properly done. This check should be made by the operating official, and through the attendant. The cost statement showing the various items of maintenance cost is not often understood by the man in direct charge. Cost sheets should be simplified and worked up by breaker sections; e.g., the cost of

Jan 1, 1947

By Oscar M. Wicken

Industrial minerals - being the basic materials for much of the industrial activity in the world -suffer or gain in the market place with changes in that activity. The period 1970 and early 1971 has been one of little growth in many of the mineral-consuming industries, particularly those associated with building and construction. Consequently, the production of many commodities revealed little or no increase above 1969 levels. The pick-up of construction activity in the last half of 1971, however, is expected to be at an intensity which will result in an over-all good year; for example, cement shipments may, establish a record. Some industrial minerals products that bucked downward trends were those allied with the agricultural industry. Phosphate rock shipments increased, particularly from Florida which contributes over 400/c of the phosphate rock in the western world. Potash had higher sales and production for the third straight year, which means that inventories are being eased. The catch-all term of ecology is an oft-mentioned theme among industrial minerals suppliers. Specifically, the need for control of dust emissions is adding a heavy capital investment burden to many of the producers; such a burden, in fact, that plants have had to cease operations because the cost of dust collection equipment could not be born. As an order-of-magnitude estimate, dust collection equipment for cement plants can run $2-3 million for a single plant; some estimates are that the total cost of dust collection equipment in a new plant can be approximately 20% of total investment. All minerals processers have dust control expense of greater or lesser proportion.

Jan 1, 1972

By W. L. Dennen, V. H. Wilson

THIS paper is a description of the opera¬tion and results of a Humphreys Spiral Silt Cleaning Plant at the Powderly Colliery of The Hudson Coal Co. during the first nine months of operation and follows a pre¬liminary description given at the Anthracite Institute in May, 1947, in a paper titled "Preparation of Anthracite Sift for Boiler Fuel in a Humphreys Spiral Test Plant" by H. H. Otto, V. H. Wilson and W. L. Dennen. This plant is considered a full size operating test plant and, like all new plants, numerous minor changes in the methods of operation have been made from time to time to secure the results desired. Views of the silt preparation plant and of the screening house are given in Fig 1 and 2. This plant consists of 48 spirals in 8 batteries of 6 spirals each, 36 of which were to be operated as primary spirals and the remaining 12 as secondary spirals. A brief description of the plant and its operation follows. The only material cleaned at the plant during 1947 was that carried in the underflow from the Thickener which handles the Breaker waste water. This underflow, amounting to approximately 2000 gpm of water and containing 12.6 pct of solids, is pumped .to vibrating screens where the plus 316-in. material is removed. (Fig 3). This oversize material drops into a pocket from which it is trucked to the run-of-mine

Jan 1, 1948

By F. W. Denton

Much has been written about the possibilities of the Vermilion and Mesabi ranges of northern Minnesota as producers of large quantities of high-grade iron-ore. The Mesabi range in particular has attracted considerable attention on account of the proximity of the ore-deposits to the surface, which has been as-

Jan 1, 1898

Jan 1, 1953

Jan 1, 1953

Jan 1, 1955