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By L. C. Graton

I. INTRODUCTION. The Relations of Scale in Geologic Work. MANY features of human accomplishment rest upon the possibility of representing natural objects on a scale of different magnitude from the actual one. Most drawings, for example, are of very different scale from that of the object depicted, and indeed are useful mainly on this account. More important than the question of mere convenience, however, is that of meeting the physical limitations of vision.1 Thus, a mural

Jan 5, 1913

By J. Chipman, G. G. Hatch

One of the important functions of the iron blast furnace is the desulphur-ization of pig iron before it enters the steelmaking furnaces. However, the increasing concentrations of sulphur in the metallurgical coke, source of approximately 90 pct of the sulphur present in the blast furnace charge, and demands for higher rates of production within recent years have increased the need for greater desulphurization within the iron blast furnace. Furnace operators are beginning to look for desulphurizing agents other than blast furnace slag to accomplish the desired degree of desulphurization. A considerable amount of work has been done on desulphurization outside the furnace with soda ash, calcium carbide and various synthetic slags. Whether the desulphurization of pig iron is accomplished wholly inside the furnace or partly inside and the remainder outside, will be determined by the economics involved. Regardless of which is the case, it is believed that it is necessary to have a better understanding of the physical chemistry of desulphurization by blast furnace slags. To this end, it is the object of the present investigation to attempt what is believed to be the first equilibrium study of the distribution of sulphur between liquid pig iron and a wide range of blast furnace slag compositions. Review of Literature There is a considerable amount of information in the literature concerning the desulphurizing power of iron blast furnace slags, the solubility of various sulphides in the slags, and the effect on desulphurization of temperature, of elements dissolved in the liquid iron, and of viscosity. However, there is nothing to indicate that the equilibrium distribution of sulphur between liquid iron saturated with carbon and iron blast furnace slags has been studied experimentally. Wentrupl has made probably the most detailed study of the desulphurization of pig iron to date. He considered that there are three distinct aspects involved, namely: 1. Desulphurization within the blast furnace (by lime and manganese). 2. Subsequent desulphurization by manganese. 3. The effect of subsidiary reactions on the desulphurization by manganese. The experimental work carried out by Wentrup was devoted mainly to obtaining a better understanding of how desulphurization by manganese was accomplished in the mixer and the ladle. Particular attention was given to the part played by carbon, silicon, and phosphorus associated with manganese in the iron, and the effect of temperature on desulphurization. The experimental results indicated that desulphurization by manganese is purely a process of crystallization of manganese sulphide. The addition of silicon to iron melts containing 3.5 pct carbon and less than 0.5 pct manganese had no noticeable effect on desulphurization, but with 1-2 pct manganese the silicon additions improved the desulphurization. Additions of phosphorus also resulted in improved desulphurizati011 by manganese, but the effect was not as marked as in the case of silicon. It was also found that desulphurization by manganese was further improved by lowering the temperature. In order to explain desulphurization inside the blast furnace, Wentrup considered the system iron, sulphur, calcium, oxygen, manganese. (silicon). The distribution of sulphur between the metal and slag was represented by the following equation: (SS) _ (S)Fe + (S)Ca + (S)Mn .... [S] = [s] [1] The parentheses and the brackets represent the equilibrium concentrations in weight per cent of the slag and metal constituents, respectively. Since FeS D (FeS) _ (FeS) (S)Fe LfeS - [FeS] [S] [2] (CaO) + S e (FeO) + (S)Ca _ (FeO)(S)Ca. (S)Ca _ (CaO) Kl = (CaO)[S] [S] ~K1(FeO) [3] Mn + S D (S)Mn (S)Mn (S)Mn K' = [MnpT "1ST = *lIMnJ !4) Substitution of Eq 2, 3, and 4 into Eq 1 resulted in if = L- + *> (Sol + K^ (S) [51 Eq 5 was used to calcu1;lte -f^j and [S] at 1480°C for slags containing 30-50 pct lime, 0.1-2.5 pct iron oxide, 0-26 pct silica, 2 pct sulphur and iron analyzing 1.5 pct manganese. The value for LFaB at 1480°C was found to be equal to 4.5, based on the experimental work of Bardenheuer and Geller.2 The results of the calculations are shown in Table 1. Although the slags are hypothetical and do not represent the range of compositions found in ordinary blast furnace practice, the calculations indicate that lime is effective in controlling desulphurization only if the iron oxide and silica contents of the slag are kept low. Schenck3 did not claim K1 to be a true equilibrium constant, but an empirical value which varied with the silica content of the slag.

Jan 1, 1950

By O. F. Kammerer, W. E. Miller, D. H. Gurinsky, J. Sadofsky, J. R. Weeks

Zirconium and titanium inhibit solution mass transfer of steels by liquid bismuth, mercury, and lead. It is shown that in bismuth and mercury, these adsorb on the surface of the steels and subsequently react with nitrogen and possibly carbon from the steels to form inert, adherent surface layers of ZrN, TiN, or TiN + Tic. Data are presented which describe the condition under which thase deposits form. These inhibitors decrease the solution rate of iron into bismuth, and require a higher supersaturation for precipitation of iron from bismuth. USE of the low-melting heavy metals (bismuth, lead, mercury, and their alloys) as coolants has been limited because solution mass transfer of steels occurs in these liquids; i. e., iron dissolves in the hot sections of the heat transfer circuit and deposits in the colder sections. The rate of solution of iron and the temperature coefficient of solubility are sufficiently great to cause complete or partial stoppage by the deposition in the coldest section of a closed circuit in finite time, even though the actual solubilities are extremely low. In the development of the mercury vapor turbine by the General Electric Co., Nerad and his associates1 discovered that the addition of as little as 1 ppm Ti or Zr to magnesium-deoxidized mercury reduced the mass transfer of ferrous alloys by mercury to a negligible amount. Reid2 reported that titanium was detected chemically on the surface of steels contacted with this mercury alloy in amounts varying from 2.0 to 2.6 mg per sq in., the greatest amount being found in the hottest portion of the circuit. Reid stated that the titanium forms the intermetallic compound Fe2Ti by reaction with iron on the surface of the steels. This compound was presumed to be highly insoluble in mercury. More recently, El-gert and Egan3 have reported a greater than 100-fold reduction in the rate of mass transfer of a 5 pet Cr steel by liquid bismuth upon the addition of titanium (in excess of 50 ppm) and magnesium (350 ppm) in the liquid metal, during experiments performed in thermal convection loops* over the temperature differential 700° to 615° C. Also, Shep-ard and his associates' have reported that the addition of titanium to liquid bismuth and Pb-Bi eutec-tic produced a marked decrease in the rates of solution of both iron and chromium from type 410 steel capsules under static conditions. This inhibiting effect increased with repeated reuse of the capsules. Tests performed in this laboratory under carefully controlled conditions have shown that the addition of zirconium and magnesium, or titanium and magnesium, to liquid bismuth or lead greatly reduces the rate of mass transfer of chromium alloy steels and carbon steels in thermal convection loops with a maximum temperature of 550°C.5-9 The present paper will review the data obtained to date at this laboratory on the behavior of iron and steels in contact with liquid bismuth alloys containing titanium or zirconium, and will attempt to explain the role of the above additives in reducing solution mass transfer. Reaction between the Zirconium or Titanium Dissolved In Liquid Bismuth and an Iron or Steel Surface Reaction between Zirconium Dissolved in Bismuth and the Surface of Pure Iron-—A small pure iron crucible (analyzed by the supplier to contain 0.8 ppm N was contacted with bismuth containing approximately 0.1 pet Mg and varying amounts of a radioactive zirconium tracer. The crucible was then inverted at the temperature of contact. The thin residual layer of adherent bismuth was dissolved in cold, concentrated nitric acid. The crucible surface and the solidified bismuth were then analyzed for radioactive zirconium. An analysis of the activity loss on the crucible surface and the weight loss of the crucible during the nitric acid treatment showed that the acid treatment removed the zirconium that had originally been dissolved in the adherent bismuth, but not any zirconium that may have reacted with the crucible surface. The crucible was then pickled in warm aqua regia to remove all surface activity, hydrogen-fired at 600°C, and recontacted with a new liquid alloy. The results of the experiments contacted 1 hr at 450°C show, Fig. 1, a Langmuir-type adsorption with an adsorption free energy of approximately 17 keal per g atom Zr.5 This deposit was estimated to contain 1 atom of zirconium for each 7 to 8 iron atoms on the crucible surface, assuming a surface roughness factor of the pickled crucibles to be five. Increasing the temperature to 520°C caused consi-

Jan 1, 1959

By C. K. Gupta, P. K. Jena

Niobium (columbium) metal in the form of a button has been produced by calciothermic reduction of niobium pentoxide using sulfur as the heat booster. In these experiments with 50 g of niobium pentoxide per batch, the influence of percentage of calcium in excess of the stoichiometric, the percentage of sulfur by weight of the niobium oxide, and the outer-wall temperature of the bomb on the quality and yield of the metal has been studied. The maximum yield on this scale was 78 pct using 50 pct excess Ca and 20 pct of S and at a bomb-wall temperature of 600°C. In experiments conducted on 500 g of niobium pentoxide, reduction with 40 pct excess Ca and 20 pct of S, and at a bomb-wall temperature of 500°C, the.yield of the metal improved to 82 to 84 pct. Some of the reduced-metal samples have been electron-beam melted and the button melts thus obtained have been observed to be extremely ductile and capable of cold reduction to 98 pct without intermediate annealing. NIOBIUM, because of its high melting point (2468oC), its ductility, its resistance to corrosion especially in liquid metals, its high-temperature mechanical properties, and its relatively low capture cross section (1.1 barns) for thermal neutrons, has potentialities as a structural material in the field of nuclear engineering. Niobium and its alloys are also gaining importance in high-temperature technology as components in aircrafts, jet engines, and missiles, electronics, chemical engineering, and surgery. In 1904 Weiss and Aichel 1 produced niobium by reduction of its pentoxide by misch-metal. Since then a large number of investigations have been carried out for the extraction of niobium from its compounds. The various routes through which the metal niobium has been extracted from its compounds can broadely be classified into the following groups: a) reduction of its halides, oxides, and fluo-salts with metals like calcium, magnesium, sodium, and aluminum;2-10 b) reduction of its halides with hydrogen and oxides with carbon or carbides;11-18 c) electrolytic winning from its halides and fluo salts;19-25 and d) thermal decomposition and disproportion ion of its halides26-30 Among the processes in commercial use at present are sodium reduction or fused-salt electrolysis of potassium niobium fluoride, carbide or carbon reduction of the oxide, and hydrogen or metallothermic reduction of the chlorides. In 1907 Von Bolton2 prepared niobium by reducing niobium pentoxide with aluminum. Dennis and Adam-sona attempted reducing the oxide with magnesium powder in argon atmosphere and the resulting metal contained as much as 5 pct O. Mondolfo8 claimed a method for the reduction of the oxides with aluminum. In the case of both magnesium and aluminum reduction, it has been stated31 that by-product oxides such as MgO or A12O3 would involve a major separation problem. Further, in the case of alumino-thermic reduction, the solubility of aluminum in niobium and intermetallic formation have to be reckoned with. In 1922 Bridge3 produced niobium by calcium reduction of niobium pentoxide. Dennis and pdamson' obtained the metal by a similar method with an oxygen content of 0.2 pct. In most of the cases of metallothermic reduction of niobium oxides mentioned above, the metal niobium is obtained in the form of powder. In an attempt to produce massive niobium metal, lock' used iodine as the thermal booster in the bomb reduction of niobium pentoxide by calcium. Massive niobium metal was obtained with a maximum yield of 75 pct containing 0.1 pct 0. Joly32 carried out experiments on calcium reduction of niobium pentoxide on a 2-kg scale using sulfur as the heat booster in a sealed bomb filled with argon. In his experiments, the reaction was initiated by passing a current through niobium spiral wire embedded in the charge. In a typical run consisting of 2000 g of niobium pentoxide, 3100 g of calcium, and 800 g of sulfur (S/Nb2O5 = 3.3), he obtained massive metal in the form of a very uneven mass with a yield of -57 pct. With lower amounts of sulfur and calcium, powder niobium mixed with small metal globules was obtained and the yield was also poor. From these experiments he concluded that this method is not a suitable one for industrial development considering the quality and yield of metal obtainable and the possible hazards with higher ratios of sulfur to niobium pentoxide in the -~charere. In the present work, a detailed investigation on the calciothermic reduction of niobium pentoxide in a stainless-steel bomb in presence of sulfur as the heat booster was undertaken on a laboratory scale.

Jan 1, 1964

By M. F. Hawkes

Austenite grain size has long been recognized by metallurgists as an important property of steels because of its influence on toughness, hardenability, ma-chinability and creep strength. Much research has been carried out on wrought steels to develop methods for disclosing austenite grain size, and to, provide knowledge of the grain-size characteristics of steels produced and heat-treated in various ways. Much less work in these fields has been done on steel castings; partly because, owing to the variable and complex microstruc-tures of cast steels, it is frequently very difficult to obtain results that are not questionable. The object of this investigation, therefore, was to establish, for a wide variety of carbon and alloy cast steels, suitable methods for disclosing austenite grain size and some knowledge of the grain-size variations to be expected. The steel foundryman is interested in austenite grain size at two different stages in the manufacture of his products; one is just after the steel is cast, and the other is after any reheating operation carried out above the critical temperature range. In both, it must always be kept in mind that the grain size being sought is actually a previous austenite grain size, and that the austenite no longer exists once the steel has cooled to room temperature. The prob-lem of the investigator is always to use evidence obtained from the structure at room temperature to deduce this previous austenite grain size, which was established the last time the steel existed at a temperature above the critical range. Since most steel castings today are at least annealed or normalized, the measurement of austenite grain size established by heat-treatment will he considered first. More than 50 commercially produced cast steels rcpresenting a wide variety of compositions and melting practices were used in the study. For each steel, grain-size determinations were made after each of three widely varying heat-treating schedules namely, one hour at I550'F, one hour at I700°F, and six hours at 1700 F. The list of steels and results obtained on them will be found in the appendix. (See page 530.) A discussion of the knowledge gained on the applicability of various test methods and on grain-size characteristics of cast steels in general follows. MEASUREMENT OF AUSTENITE GRAIN SIZE ESTABLISHED BY HEAT TREATMENT Methods Suitable foR Determining Austenite Grain Size after Heat-treatment at Ordinary Temperatures and Times It was desired, as one of the results of this investigation, to be able to recommend to steel foundries a method, or methods, of disclosing grain size best suited to accurate

Jan 1, 1948

By M. F. Hawkes

Austenite grain size has long been recognized by metallurgists as an important property of steels because of its influence on toughness, hardenability, ma-chinability and creep strength. Much research has been carried out on wrought steels to develop methods for disclosing austenite grain size, and to, provide knowledge of the grain-size characteristics of steels produced and heat-treated in various ways. Much less work in these fields has been done on steel castings; partly because, owing to the variable and complex microstruc-tures of cast steels, it is frequently very difficult to obtain results that are not questionable. The object of this investigation, therefore, was to establish, for a wide variety of carbon and alloy cast steels, suitable methods for disclosing austenite grain size and some knowledge of the grain-size variations to be expected. The steel foundryman is interested in austenite grain size at two different stages in the manufacture of his products; one is just after the steel is cast, and the other is after any reheating operation carried out above the critical temperature range. In both, it must always be kept in mind that the grain size being sought is actually a previous austenite grain size, and that the austenite no longer exists once the steel has cooled to room temperature. The prob-lem of the investigator is always to use evidence obtained from the structure at room temperature to deduce this previous austenite grain size, which was established the last time the steel existed at a temperature above the critical range. Since most steel castings today are at least annealed or normalized, the measurement of austenite grain size established by heat-treatment will he considered first. More than 50 commercially produced cast steels rcpresenting a wide variety of compositions and melting practices were used in the study. For each steel, grain-size determinations were made after each of three widely varying heat-treating schedules namely, one hour at I550'F, one hour at I700°F, and six hours at 1700 F. The list of steels and results obtained on them will be found in the appendix. (See page 530.) A discussion of the knowledge gained on the applicability of various test methods and on grain-size characteristics of cast steels in general follows. MEASUREMENT OF AUSTENITE GRAIN SIZE ESTABLISHED BY HEAT TREATMENT Methods Suitable foR Determining Austenite Grain Size after Heat-treatment at Ordinary Temperatures and Times It was desired, as one of the results of this investigation, to be able to recommend to steel foundries a method, or methods, of disclosing grain size best suited to accurate

Jan 1, 1948

By NEWTON B. KNOX

IN Bolivia, mining is still the principal economic activity, as it was before and during the Spanish Colonial period. Tin, tungsten, antimony, copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, sulphur, and a little bismuth are produced. The Andes mountains are divided into two main ranges in Bolivia; the Western range marks the border with Chile and the Eastern range forms the backbone of the country; in the North it drops rather abruptly eastward, to the plains of the Beni, whereas in the South it splits and is separated from the Chaco flatlands by a series of folded mountain ranges. In general the mineral deposits are found within the Eastern range or in the hills that rise from the high plateau between the ranges - really parts of the Eastern range partly submerged by recent sediments. The mineral belt is thus over 500 miles long and about 100 miles wide and includes most of the principal centers of population and the most important means of communication. The region is mountainous and the roads are bad; furthermore labor is a serious problem, for the land is poor and the agricultural population is never far from hunger. The floating supply of miners is limited and soon exhausted in any emergency like the present.

Jan 1, 1945

By J. M. Hassler

NOWHERE can there be found a more misleading statement than the old one that "Iron can be manufactured cheaper in the South." During the past decade ironmakers and users of iron have heard varied and sundry stories of the wonderful resources of the Birmingham district, including abundant ore and coal fields, cheap labor, a wonderful climate and similar industrial Utopian statements. Birmingham represents the major portion of the iron business in the South, acid as Birmingham fares so goes the iron business of the South. The intent of this paper is to shed some light on the actual conditions surrounding ironmaking in the South, especially in the Birmingham, or North Alabama, district. By a presentation of facts it is desired to point out that the "cheap iron" of the industrial South is a thing of the past, primarily because of increased labor cost and because labor is radically different in performance to what it was years ago. Also, because most of the raw materials needed in ironmaking that would be classed better than inferior are gone.

Jan 1, 1937

By Eugene McAuliffe

In the year 1581, the counselors of King Philip of Spain suggested to that monarch that a canal across the Isthmus of Darien would open the west coast of the South American continent to Spanish miners and explorers, enlarging and expanding the flow of precious metals then just beginning to trickle across the path cut by Spanish Conquistadors, from old Panama to Puerto Bello on the east coast. The King sent out a party of surveyors and explorers under the command of a young engineer, Savadaerro, who returned after two years, reporting upon a location for a canal which was virtually adopted by the French engineers employed by De Lesseps, who in 1877 commenced the work of constructing the Panama Canal-296 years after Sava- daerro's first survey was begun. The suggestion for an Isthmian canal, made to the king at a time when Spain was a proud, virile nation and when that country was contending with England in the fields of discovery and conquest, represents a measure of vision that has never failed to intrigue the imagination. That the young Spanish engineer recommended an undertaking so gigantic in conception that it took three and one-third centuries for its completion from the time it was first visioned matters little. In the day of Philip of Spain,

Jan 1, 1932

By A. P. Watts

FOREWORD THE problem of concentrating the disseminated lead ore of southeast Missouri is extremely simple. The economic mineral is galena and the gangue is dolomite. The ore assays from 4 to .6 per cent. lead, 80 per cent. of which is recovered in a 70 per cent. concentrate.. The ore is crushed through 10 mm. and sized on 2 mm.; the oversize is jigged, while the undersize is tabled, and the slime treated by flotation. The district is the largest lead producer in the world, the output of metallic lead for the year 1915 being 183,906 tons. Over 20,000 tons of ore a day is being treated. The management of the different properties is progressive and always open to suggestion. The fact; however, must not be lost sight of, that the problem in the district is peculiar, as the average ore contains but 80 to 120 lb. of a metal normally selling at about 4c. per lb. The low price of the metal limits the treatment system to one of low cost. An elaborate treatment is neither logical nor advisable. An engineer first visiting the district may consider that the method of treatment could be improved

Jan 10, 1917

By H. Merton Ruth

THE northern anthracite fields, although facing the same economic problems as the southern fields, are confronted with the additional problem of fast dwindling reserves of anthracite which can be conventionally and economically won. The mining of coal which remains in thin beds and the recovery of pillars from areas heretofore considered unrecoverable, either by reason of cost or surface restriction, pose problems of in- creasing importance to the economic life of the northern field operations. Successful approaches have Been made to this problem and other work is being performed that holds promise. There exists in the northern anthracite field millions of tons of solid coal, the recovery of which has not been too successful due to the following inherent operating faults: inability to concentrate producing areas; the great quantities of rock to be cut and handled, lack of consideration of proper sequence and speed of second mining, and the continued use of the mine car as the basis of payment. A mining system that has successfully solved these major problems has been in operation in the Scranton area since 1944. Over 1% million tons have been produced from veins varying from 3 to 4% ft thick by this method, which is known as the multiple panel-triangular system-conveyor mining.

Jan 1, 1950

MEMBERS, JUNIOR MEMBERS, ASSOCIATES AND JUNIOR ASSOCIATES LIST OF MEMBERS ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED EXPLANATION OF SYMBOLS ** Junior Member. t Associate. || Junior Associate. Members are not marked. Capital letters signify Honorary membership. Student Associate and Rocky Mountain members on pages 165-167. Abadilla. Quirico A Catanawan. Tayabas, P. I. Abbey. Robert Graham. District Mgr The W. W. Sly Mfn. Co., 60 Church St New York. N. Y. Abbott. A. N Mines Supt Mazapil Copper Co Ltd . .Conception del Oro. Zac., Mexico. Abbott. Ckrence E Mgr Mines & Quarries, Tenn. Coal. Iron & R. R. Co 1242 Brown Marx Bldg Birminrham. Ala. Abbott. Louie Benjamin. Chief Enar Consolidation Coal Co Elkhorn Div .Jenkins, KY. Abeel. Gsorge H Jr., Cons. Min. Enar .Box 427. Santa Monica. Cal. Abel. Albert E Asst. to Pres Valley Mould & Iron Corp Hubbard. Ohio. Abel. Raymond L. Asst. Prof., Dept. of Pet. Refin Univ. of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh. Pa. Abernathy. George Elmer. Prof. of Geol. & Min Kansas State Teachers College. Pittsburg. Kans. IlAbernethy. D. Carl, Jr. Min. Engr Hudson Coal Co .Scranton. Pa. Abey, Hiroshi. Min. & Met. Engr., Min. & Met. Dept., The Higher Technical School, Osaka. Japan. tAbarn, Robert H Instructor in Met Harvard University Cambridge, Mass tAbozeid,Mahmood. Pet. Production E r . . Marland Oil Co. Ponca City, Okla. Abraham. Arthur W Geol., Richfield Oil Co Box 788. Bakersfield, Cal. Abraham, W. E. V Member, Staff of Burmah Oil Co Ltd. Nyaunghla. Upper Burmz, India. Abrahams. Alexander I Gen'l Mgr., Racon Electrical Co Slough, Bucks England. tAbrahammn. C. W Min. Engr The Mond Nickel Co Ltd . Coniston, Ont Canada. IlAbmn. Guy W., Asst. Metallographist, Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co., Research Dept., Youngstown. Ohio. Abstein. Henry T., Engr. & Mgr Profile-Tamarack Mines Co . .Yellow Pine, Idaho. tAcker. E. O'C Met I28 East Washington Lane. Germantown, Philadelphia. Pa. Ackerman. D. E Met. Research Lab International Nickel Co Inc Bayonne. N. J. tAbckerman. Ernest R Pres., Lawrence Portland Cement Co . .Plainfield. Union Co N. J. ||Ackerman. George F Jr. Min. Engr El Potosi Min. Co. .Apt. 13. Chihuahua, Chih Mexico. Acres, T. H Geol. Dept Valuation & Pet. Engr., Richfield Oil Co. 655 S. Flower St Los Angeles. Cal. Adachi. Jinzoo Address Wanted. Adair. Arthur C Valuation Enar., Internal Revenue. Treasury Dept., Washington, D. C. Adam. John. Min. Ennr., The Zinc Corp. Ltd., Box 4 C. Broken Hill, N. S. W Australia. Adami. Arthur E V. P Montana State School of Mines.Butte, Mont. Adami. Charles J Min. Ensr St. Joseph Lead Co 4540 Lindel Blvd., St. Louis, Mo. Adams. C. W.729 South Normandie St LaGranada Apt Los Angeles, Cal. Adams. Cmyler Geerwwd. Minn. Adams. F. J Gen'l Anent. Gulf Production & Pipa Line Cos .Fort Worth. Tex. ADAMS. FRANK DAWSON. Logan Prof. of Geology and Dean, Faculty of Applied Science, McGill Univ Montreal. Que Canada. Adama, Gale L Research Enar., General Pet. Corp. of California, Higgins Bldg Los Angeles. Cal. Adams. George I, Prof. of Geol. & Mineralogy Univ. of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Ala. Adams. H. H Cons. Geol Room 416, W. T. Waagoner Bldg Fort Worth. Tex. Adams, Henry. Cons. Min. Ennr 1050 Edgewood Ave., Plainfield, N. J. Adams, Henry H.285 Madison Ave., New York. N. Y. Adams, Henry Farnum. Engr., Charge. Experimental Work. Inspiration Concentrator, Inspiration Cons. Copper Co Box 354. Inspiration. Ariz. Adams. Huntington. Min. Enar I41 Broadway, New York. N. Y. Mama, Leland D., V. P., Leslie-California Salt Co 166 Montgomery St., San Francisco, Cal. Adams, Louis W., Illinois Steel Co .Gary. Ind.

Jan 1, 1929

By Claude P. Heiner

While the title of this paper embraces the entire West Coast, the author, in the interest of simplification. has confined the discussion to California-particularly the central section. California's population has, risen 45 pct since 1940. Its electric requirements have also increased, not only because of the growth in industry and population but also because of the widespread tendency of all types of electric consumers to use more electricity than ever before. The growth of California's electric utilities is shown by published data covering operations, of three of its large systems and is given in Table 1.

Jan 1, 1949

By William Paxton Hewitt

Mineral deposits of western Utah and eastern and central Nevada have produced in excess of $8,500,000,000 since 1871. Through 1965, Bingham Canyon had produced over $4,600,000,000 and seven other camps over $100,000,000 each, principally from base metals. In addition, they yield iron and uranium ores; contain the world's largest beryllium reserves; and have produced the United States' most important gold discovery in 25 years. The area is famous for its silver production and its bonanza-type precious metal deposits, but such production has become unimportant. The area's greatest producers of metallic wealth are base-metal deposits in limestones and porphyry-type copper ores. In contrast to silver's decline, gold production has been rising-the result of by-product operations at Bingham Canyon. The area also contains gold deposits in which the gold is so finely disseminated it is not recoverable by panning. The area's gold ores frequently are associated with realgar, cinnabar, and carbon. The ore deposits generally are attributed to Tertiary intrusives,* but, at Mountain City, they may be related to Paleozoic volcanism. Mountain City has yielded rich chalcocite from quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite bodies in siliceous sediments. Regional stratigraphy and structure are difficult to interpret, 69 per cent of the area being obscured by alluvium or volcanics. In general, central Nevada consists of chert, shale, silty sandstones, lavas, and pyroclastics; eastern Nevada and western Utah of many alternations of limestone, shale, and sandstone. Central Nevada has been structurally active since late Devonian. Although granitic stocks may have intruded eastern Nevada and western Utah prior to the Cretaceous, these areas remained quite stable until affected by the Laramide Revolution. Precambrian exposures, occupying 3 per cent of the area, have not been important hosts. However, the question is raised as to whether Precambrian carbonates, properly situated with respect to invading mineralizers, might yet prove to be important. This paper describes 16 precious metal camps, 6 limestone replacement districts, 2 silver-base metal vein deposits, and 9 miscellaneous types and discusses briefly the 11 * Some ores, as at Ely, are associated with intrusives of. Cretaceous age. major camps that are described in detail in this Volume.

Jan 1, 1968

By J. S. UNGER

A LARGE proportion of the coke used is made in the by-product oven from the high-volatile coals mined in the adjacent district. At the beginning it was feared good by-product blast-furnace coke could not be made with our coals. By experimenting with various mixtures of coals, coking time, oven design, and coking temperatures, much has already been accomplished. The results show that a hard, dense coke, not easily broken by handling, can be produced. In its present state it is not all that could be desired, but it is being constantly improved. Such coke has been used alone as the fuel on several of the blast furnaces producing the highest daily production in the Pittsburgh district. Many of the coals in the Pittsburgh district when coked in the by-product oven yield a gas which contains a high percentage of sulfur, which is objection- able for many metallurgical operations. As this fuel is gradually replacing the ideal fuel, natural gas, which is becoming less plentiful, studies are being made of the best methods for purification. Some metallurgists believe sulfur to be a very injurious element in steel. Recent investigations by Government bureaus, scientific bodies and private firms, seem to indicate that a reasonable amount of sulfur may exist in steel without detriment. Without wishing to provoke any metallurgical controversy on the subject of sulfur, the fact remains that the daily purification

Jan 1, 1926

By E. D. Gardner

The Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act (58 Stat., 190; 30 U.S.C. Sup., Secs. 321- 325) was approved by Congress April 5, 1944; it directed the Bureau of Mines to build demonstration plants to produce synthetic liquid fuels from coal, oil shale, and agricultural products. The most important oil-shale de- posits in the United States are in the Green River formation of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. The oil shale of western Colorado generally is more amenable to exploitation, more persistent, and apparently richer than elsewhere in the Rocky Mountain Region. It occurs at the top of a high plateau surrounded by bold, nearly vertical escarpments 500 to 600 ft in height. The top 400 to 500 ft of these escarpments comprises an oil-shale measure that averages 15 gal of shale oil per ton; the bottom 70 to 100 ft of the measure, called the Mahogany Ledge, averages over 30 gal per ton. The full measure in a 1000-square-mile area is estimated to contain 300 billion barrels of shale oil;' the Mahogany Ledge is estimated to contain 100 billion barrels of oil. These estimates are based on numerous surface samples and on core-drill holes drilled by the Government and by private enterprise. The oil-shale beds are undisturbed and lie nearly horizontal. The name

Jan 1, 1949

By David A. Thomas, John F. Peck

Fibrous microstructures and their development have been studied by metallography and by hardness and quantitative metallographic measurements. Thin, curved grains were observed in transverse sections of commercial tungsten wire and were developed in laboratory-drawn iron wire at reductions greater than about 70 pct. The unusual grain shapes are attributed to the nonuniform mode of deformation of the grains associated with the characteristic [I101 preferred orientation that develops in bcc metals during drawing. Transverse sections of heavily swaged iron wire showed a ospiral nebulao structure that appears to result from the elliptical shape of the cross section of the swaging dies and their rotary motion. Hardness and quantitative metallographic results show unusual trends that parallel the changes in microstructure. Other phenomena are considwed in light of the results, including the strength of fine wires of bcc metals, ocylindricalo textures, and the ductility of fibrous tungsten. 1 HE microstructure of tungsten wire in a longitudinal section shows grains highly elongated in the working direction, giving the appearance of a bundle of parallel fibers, Fig. l(a). Wires of tungsten and other bcc metals show a pronounced preferred orientation in which a [I101 direction is parallel to the wire axis.l The microstructure and texture of tungsten develop during warm working (working above room temperature but below the recrystallization temperature) into wire by swaging and drawing. Fibrous tungsten so produced has limited but useful room-temperature ductility, whereas annealed tungsten is brittle at room temperature. During an investigation of the effect of recovery annealing on the substructure of commerical 0.030 in. diam tungsten wire, it was found that transverse sections of the as-received material showed thin, curved grains, Fig. 1(b), instead of the expected equiaxed grains. The fact that Figs. l(a) and (b) show different sections of the same material at the same magnification is at first disconcerting, because the long dimension of the curved grains in the transverse section is several times the average fiber width in the longitudinal section. However, a longitudinal section cuts most of the curved grains across their narrow dimension, giving the appearance of a multitude of narrow fibers. On the other hand, the plane of a longitudinal section occasionally includes a long dimension of a curved grain, resulting in a broad ofibero, such as A in Fig. l(a). EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS To investigate the origin of fibrous microstructures and particularly the unusual transverse-section structure of tungsten, rods of iron (also bcc) were drawn and swaged in the laboratory. One rod of annealed Ferrovac E was drawn in six steps to a total reduction in area of 87 pct (0.10 to 0.036 in. diam), and a second rod was swaged to the same reduction, using approximately the same reduction steps. Longitudinal and transverse sections of the swaged and drawn iron wires are shown in Fig. 2, for reductions in area of 39, 73, and 87 pct. A fibrous microstructure in longitudinal section is first evident at 73 pct reduction, and it is further developed at 87 pct reduction. The grains in transverse section remain equiaxed until about 73 pct reduction, when they become somewhat elongated and curved. At 87 pct reduction, the drawn wire shows thin, curved grains in the transverse section, similar to those observed in tungsten. The transverse sections of the iron wires swaged 83 and 87 pct reduction in area show the striking ospiral nebulao structure in Fig. 2(d). This struc-

Jan 1, 1962

By C. A. Stewart

I. INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL STATEMENT OF RESULTS. The field-work upon which this paper is based was done in the summer of 1910, and was made possible by the courtesy of the Imperial Copper Co., which gave me access to its property. For their kindness in this respect I wish to express my thanks to W. F. Staunton and Meade Goodloe. Moreover,. B. F. Smith and G. B. Gentry, mining engineers in the employ of the company, gave invaluable assistance by placing maps,. etc., at my disposal, and by discussing with me the problems of the district; and it is a great pleasure to acknowledge this indebtedness to them. In order that the significance of some of the details that follow may be better appreciated at first reading, a general outline of the conclusions reached is given here. In the Silverbell mining-district a series of Palaeozoic limestone blocks is completely surrounded by post-Palaeozoic igneous rocks, intruded in the following order: alaskite, alaskite-porphyry, biotite-granite, andesite, and quartz-porphyry. The biotite-granite is believed to represent a differentiation of the. magma from which the alaskite-porphyry came ; and this conclusion-has an important hearing on the origin of the ores. The intrusion of both alaskite-porphyry and biotite-granite was followed by the emission of magmatic waters, which sericitized and silicified the alaskite-porphyry and granite, and produced in the limestone, by the addition to it of silica, iron, and alumina, great masses of garnet, quartz, and wollastonite. Following close upon these solutions came metal-bearing magmatic waters, which impregnated porphyry, granite, and alas kite with cupriferous pyrite, and deposited in the garnet zones chalcopyrite and copper-bearing pyrite that make important bodies of contact-metamorphic ores. Secondary enrichment has taken place in the disseminated ores in the igneous rocks,. raising their copper-content to 2 per cent. in some cases,. and extensive drilling has been undertaken to block out these deposits. East of the contact-metamorphic deposits there is a fissure-vein of lead-silver ore in the quartz-porphyry. This rock is distinctly younger than the alaskite-porphyry and the granite; and the lead-silver ores belong, therefore, to a period of mineralization distinctly later than the copper-deposition.

May 1, 1912

By W. F. Durfee

In the year 1862 the author of this paper was called upon to design and superintend the erection and working of the machinery of an experimental works for the production of steel by a process

Jan 1, 1884

A Discussion of the papers of James Gayley, on "The Application of Dry-Air Blast to the Manufacture of Iron" (see Trans., XXXV., 746, 1022, also pp. 315 and 745 of the present volume, and of J. E. Johnson, Jr., on "The Physical Action of the Blast-Furnace," p. 454. Chas. B. Dudley, Altoona, Pa.:—I am not a blast-furnace man, and this always puts me at a disadvantage because I cannot go into the details of the making of iron and steel. I have not the experience, and have to take the statements of other people, so what I say regarding the subject of this paper is not in the sense of an expert. When I first heard of Mr. Gayley's experiments, I said to myself, a I fear they will result in failure, since, apparently, Mr. Gayley has forgotten one chemical fact, namely, that carbon does not combine with oxygen in the absence of mater-vapor." This fact which was so astonishing when it was first brought out some years ago, and which those who are interested may find in the Journal of the Chemical Society of London, for 1885, page 349, and 1894, page 611, led me to think that the drying of the air would be a mistake. The general subject of the influence of water-vapor on chemical action is a large one; but the special point in which we are, for the moment, interested, namely, the influence of water-vapor on the combustion of carbon, was especially treated by Mr. H. B. Baker, in the papers referred to. Apparently, however, as the result of Mr. Gayley's experiments, we are to learn that the amount of moisture still left in the desiccated air is sufficient to secure perfectly satisfactory combustion. In thinking over Mr. Gayley's paper, it occurred to me that there were two alternatives, either of which might be chosen, namely, we might dry the air as Mr. Gayley does, or possibly we might, in a very much easier way, simply saturate the air at a constant temperature, and thus get uniform working and

Jan 1, 1906