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By R Millar

A frequent challenge in mine water management and mine design is estimation of precipitation and extreme rainfall given a short record of site meteorological data. For remote mine projects, typically only a few years of rainfall data are available, which is far too short for estimation of design rainfall event, such as the 1-in-100 year storm. A frequency-paired approach is presented for comparing daily precipitation records from a mine site with a long-term regional station and provides the basis to transpose the long-term record to the mine site. This allows a long-term synthetic precipitation record to be developed for the mine site that can be used to undertake site water balance studies, determine pond storage requirements, assess water supply options and address other surface water management issues. Conventional approaches are based on chronologically-paired data and when applied to daily data generally yield poor correlations between stations. In the frequency-pairing approach, statistical distributions (two-parameter gamma distribution) are fit to daily data from two stations and used to calculate daily and extreme precipitation values for the short-term site (which is typically a mine or other project site). The method is demonstrated using data from two meteorological stations located along the south coast of British Columbia, Canada. Use of a fitted two-parameter gamma distribution (or other distribution) provides a sound theoretical approach to comparing precipitation data from two sites and the basis for transposing a long-term record to generate synthetic precipitation series and extreme rainfall values at mine sites.CITATION:Millar, R, 2013. A statistical approach for deriving project design rainfall, in Proceedings Water in Mining 2013 , pp 273-276 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 26, 2013

By R Morrison, R Dunn

In many mineral processing operations, the reported production figures for an accounting period may not make the best use of available data. While most of the mathematical approaches, such as check-in/check-out, mass balancing, used in effective metallurgical accounting strategies are well understood, the sources and magnitude of measurement errors generally are not. As part of the æAMIRA P754-Metal Accounting and ReconciliationÆ project, a study was undertaken at the Northparkes copper/gold concentrator near Parkes, New South Wales to examine the data used in their concentrator metallurgical accounting system. This paper summarises the results of a detailed examination of the mass measurement systems around the concentrator as well as the primary sampling system used for grade estimation. The goal of this work was to develop practical techniques to quantify the error (ie both accuracy and precision) of the measured metal accounting information. With this information, statistical confidence levels for this data can then be calculated. If the errors are small, the effect of error in each piece of measured data can then be propagated to other calculated production figures such as recovery and feed grade using a statistical technique called æthe propagation of errorÆ.

Jan 1, 2007

By J Wall

The use of electronic detonators in civil tunnelling applications, to reduce vibration in small firings has been successfully utilised for a number of years. As part of the mining industry’s commitment to reducing blast damage during the development cycle in underground mining applications, a series of development blasts using e-Dev™ electronic detonators in a typical mining application was conducted at Resolute’s Mt Wright operations in North Queensland in 2010. Results were based on direct comparisons to the current industry standard of non-electric firings as a baseline, with as many parameters as possible being captured during the trial. Development costs are typically high in most underground mines, especially in capital development headings, which are in waste and therefore of no direct economic value, so by being able to accurately fire to design, costs relating to both ground support requirements and volume of material removed, (and therefore haulage required) can be minimised. A direct comparison of overbreak (ground blasted outside of design) and cast (distance rock thrown from blast) was also made during the trial, as well as close monitoring of the drilling accuracy.

Mar 21, 2011

By M G. Hawtin

The Rocklands copper project is a multilode, iron oxide copper gold (IOCG) + cobalt mineralised system located in the Eastern Fold Belt of the Mt Isa Inlier. Rocklands orebodies cover a range of oxidation zones from oxide, to supergene and primary. Each zone contains different economic minerals of interest. The supergene zones contain significant amounts of native copper and the primary zones are dominated by chalcopyrite. The juxtaposition of these oxidation zones and minerals make it an interesting mineralisation system.Current mine production sampling collects a nominal 3 kg drill chip sample from a 1 m composite, RC drilled interval. A site specific sampling procedure was needed to quantify introduced sampling error when taking grade control samples. Due to oxidation and mineralogical variation in ore zones we needed to develop a practically achievable sampling methodology that ensures minimum sample mass and sample error requirements are achieved to ensure ‘representative’ samples for all ore types.These issues are planned to be resolved using an experimentally derived method using principles from the Theory of Sampling. This method uses an experimental calibration of parameters K and a for Gy’s fundamental sampling error formula using a modified 32-piece sampling tree experiment to compile sampling nomograms for the primary and supergene ores. This paper demonstrates the process undertaken to improve the quality and standard of existing mine production sampling procedures at the Rocklands operation.Results indicate a sample mass of 5 kg for RC drill chips is appropriate for both the primary and supergene ores to achieve a fundamental error below 0.01 or 10 per cent relative error, which is slightly higher than the existing sampling protocol of 3 kg. An additional experiment is recommended to compile sampling nomograms using the exact laboratory comminution and mass reduction stage information to assess the use of a 3 kg sample. The results also indicate no changes are required to existing sampling protocols when sampling RC drill chips in primary and supergene ore at Rocklands.Sampling nomogram results also provide a useful ‘rule of thumb’ reference guide to other mining and exploration companies to help understand minimum sample mass requirements and sampling error during exploration drilling, resource evaluation and mining production stages when targeting similar IOCG mineralised systems. A sample mass of 5 kg is recommended when RC drilling similarly IOCG mineralised prospects and deposits in the Cloncurry area. Future test work is recommended when additional open cuts become active as well as including resource drilling drill core to provide better three-dimensional sample representivity.CITATION:Hawtin, M G, 2017. Minimum sample mass from reverse circulation grade control drilling at Rocklands copper project, in Proceedings Tenth International Mining Geology Conference 2017, pp 337–346 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 20, 2017

By R Wei, Y Peng, D Seaman

This study addresses a widespread problem confronting the mining industry: the deleterious effect of clay minerals in flotation. This problem is seemingly exacerbated by the presence of iron contamination from grinding media. The interaction of clay minerals and grinding media in copper and gold flotation was investigated in this study. A low-clay ore and a high-clay ore were obtained from Telfer to represent different contents of clay minerals, while stainless steel and mild steel grinding rods were used to produce different grinding chemistry, in particular, iron contamination. Flotation tests on an unsized and sized basis were conducted to reveal how clay minerals and grinding media affect copper and gold flotation. Iron contamination and the oxidation of copper minerals were quantified by ethylene diamine-tetra acetic acid (EDTA) extraction. It is interesting to find that both clay minerals and iron contamination depressed the flotation primarily in fine particles smaller than 33 ¦m, and clay minerals played a dominant role. Although flotation of coarser particles greater than 33 ¦m was less affected by clay minerals and iron contamination, coarser grinding to increase P80 was not an effective way to improve copper and gold flotation for the high-clay ore. This study suggests that to improve copper and gold flotation from clay ores, clay dispersion in conjunction with the minimisation of iron contamination may be required.CITATION:Wei, R, Peng, Y and Seaman, D, 2013. The effect of grinding media on copper and gold flotation in the presence of clay minerals, in Proceedings World Gold 2013 , pp 283-288 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 26, 2013

By L Galisson, E Audigé, D Sowers

Establishing a robust geotechnical instrumentation and construction monitoring plan is one of the keys to the successful delivery of the world’s largest soft-ground bored tunnel in Seattle, Washington. The paper describes and provides a return of experience on current and best practice for monitoring tunnelling projects in urban areas. The owner’s contractual approach is discussed to highlight the flexibility of the design-built contract in achieving equal or better solutions by allowing for the use of innovative technics. Special attention is given to the management and involvement of third parties (building owners, utility owners), including the public, to overcome all challenges faced during the installation of the monitoring system in downtown Seattle for over 1000 instruments. Finally, the authors present the strategies implemented for managing the monitoring data and communicating with the owner, contractor and stakeholders.CITATION:Sowers, D, Galisson, L and Audigé, E, 2014. Current and best practice for monitoring tunnelling projects in urban areas – Alaskan Way bored tunnel, Seattle, Washington, in Proceedings 15th Australasian Tunnelling Conference 2014 , pp 441–450 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 17, 2014

By P York

The study commenced in October 2012, to understand the basic ecology of the spotted-tailed quoll (Dasyurus maculatus) and to confirm whether the species utilise previously mined land on the Mt Owen mine site that was rehabilitated in 1996 to 2011, as part of their home range. The spotted-tailed quoll is a widely distributed marsupial carnivore that is listed as rare or threatened in every state in which it occurs. The species is a forest-dependent marsupial carnivore that occupies a wide range of habitat types (Long and Nelson, 2004).The first part of the study involved trapping a spotted-tailed quoll and fitting the individual with a combined global positioning system / ultra high frequency (GPS/UHF) radio-transmitter collar (Telemetry Solution – Quantum 4000E). The benefit of the GPS/UHF collar is that it records locations (or fixes) at intervals programmed by the user. The UHF component allows the researcher to locate the individual at a frequent interval, and the Quantum 4000E also has a remote download function, enabling the GPS data stored in the collar to be wirelessly transmitted between the collar and researcher. The benefit of this new technology is that the animal does not need to be repeatedly captured to retrieve the GPS data.Daytime searches are also undertaken using the UHF receiver to locate the individual and locations of daytime denning and latrine sites. The location of each den site is recorded using a hand-held GPS. Data downloaded from the GPS collar is then imported and mapped using computer software program ARCGIS (geographic information system), to overlay the data points onto aerial photography.Results demonstrate that threatened species will utilise rehabilitation areas post mining. The data presented will be used to develop a greater understanding of threatened species ecology in and around rehabilitated areas, which will assist in the planning and design of native forest rehabilitation areas.CITATION:York, P, 2014. Mt Owen Mine spotted-tailed quoll study, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2014 , pp 591–596 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 16, 2014

By L Nienaber

Mines, after becoming operational, often retain the same support and reinforcement designs developed in the feasibility study. These designs are conceived from limited drilling data and regional experience, thus having an empirical flavour. Empirical designs are perceived to be conservative, catering for a variety of failure mechanisms, which are not always present in mine development drives.This begs the question: If you were to invest in the necessary resources to obtain sufficient data and complete the required analyses for the different development drives in the mine, to engineer a support and reinforcement scheme with the capacity to match the demand of the rock mass, what is the difference in cost when comparing an empirical design to an engineered design?To answer this question, mine tunnels with different geometries and orientations, where detailed structural data was available, were selected for a comparative design exercise. Material cost, development cost, cycle time and professional fees for engineered and empirical designs were estimated. The outcome is summarised in the following paper that discusses the process followed and the results of the design comparison.

Mar 8, 2011

By N Haque

Base metal ores contain low levels of toxic/hazardous elements such as arsenic, antimony, bismuth, cadmium, lead and mercury. Given the large tonnage of base metal ores mined and processed each year globally, the accumulated mass of minor elements introduced into the biosphere is large and could be expected to have a significant environmental impact. Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a methodology that has been developed to assess the environmental impacts of material supply chains over their entire life cycle. Assessing the toxicity impacts of metallic wastes and incorporating these impacts into LCA methodology is not a simple task given the complexity of the issue. However, research and methodology development is in progress internationally to address this. Despite limitations concerning the lack of a coherent framework for characterising the toxicity impacts of metals, including issues such as bioavailability, a study was carried out to give first estimates of the relative toxicity impacts of various waste streams from metal production processes. The wastes considered were: red mud; sulfide tailings (copper, nickel, lead/zinc); lead/zinc slags; synthetic rutile residue; iron oxide residue; and copper slags and anode slimes. These toxicity estimates can be considered the æworst caseÆ scenario for these wastes, where all the metals present are bioavailable. Combining estimates of the amounts of the various waste streams produced in Australia each year with the toxicity results showed that despite their relatively low human toxicity impact per unit mass compared to some other waste streams, red mud and the various sulphide tailings had the highest annual human toxicity load on the environment, along with copper smelting slag and dust. Data from the pH dependent leaching test reported in the literature were assumed to represent first approximations of metal bioavailability and used to compare the two approaches to estimating the toxicity impacts of red mud.

Jan 1, 2009

By J-P Franzidis, E V. Manlap

Froth transportation characteristics have a significant impact on the flotation recovery especially in large flotation cells. The probability of an attached particle being recovered into the concentrate depends strongly on the location where it enters the froth phase. A mathematical model for froth transportation in industrial flotation cells was proposed (Zheng et al, 2004). The model has been tested on the experimental data obtained from testwork conducted at the Western Metals Hellyer lead/zinc concentrator. The results show that the model fits the experimental data well, especially when the froth is well developed (ie for a deep froth). The model fitting can be significantly improved by incorporating an air dispersion factor. However, the models encounter some limitation, ie inconsistent prediction at different froth heights, due to change in froth viscosity which cannot be modelled at the present time.

Jan 1, 2005

By B Rouvray, R Bertuzzi

The development of a design-and-construct tunnelling project in Australia from its concept to its construction requires designs to be prepared and reviewed at several distinct stages prior to documenting ‘for construction’. On recent projects the post-tender stages have been variously called 30 per cent—70 per cent—100 per cent; or concept–substantial–final; or system definition–preliminary–critical. The design is reviewed at each stage by the designer’s internal reviewer, the contractor and its independent advisor(s), the owner and its independent advisor(s), the project’s independent certifier, proof engineers and often third-party stakeholders and their advisors. Documentation for each stage often dominates the design effort, at times distracting from design. This paper presents the authors’ experience of this design-and-review process. Comparisons of design budget and actual design spend and design program implications are presented. It is postulated that a subtle change has occurred in our industry that has diminished the value of the design dollar. Is there a better process? An alternative is suggested.CITATION:Bertuzzi, R and Rouvray, B, 2014. Reducing the cost of tunnel design in Australia, in Proceedings 15th Australasian Tunnelling Conference 2014 , pp 501–506 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 17, 2014

By D Johansson, C Yi

Blasting techniques are widely used to fragment rock masses into smaller pieces. Numerical modelling is an efficient method employed by many researchers in the blasting field. It is difficult for a conventional continuum-based approach such as the finite element method (FEM) to model the rock fragmentation by blasting and the expansion work on the rock by explosive and its detonation products. In this paper, the particle blast method (PBM) was employed to model the behaviour of the detonation and a bonded particle model (BPM) was used to model the brittle material to be blasted. A mortar cylinder with a centrally placed hole for the explosive was modelled and the results were compared to the experimental data. The blast process from crack initiation to fragment formation was analysed. The influence of coupling ratio on fragmentation was also investigated.CITATION:Yi, C and Johansson, D, 2015. Discrete element modelling of blast fragmentation of a mortar cylinder, in Proceedings 11th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, pp 793–798 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 24, 2015

By H Turrer, M Badawi, R Belissont, Y Foucaud, E Kleiderer, L Southavy, J Mesquita, Y Basselin

The Mont Reed iron ore deposit, owned by ArcelorMittal, is situated approximately 140 km southwest of the Mont-Wright mine in the southern region of the Labrador Trough, Canada. Acquired by Québec Cartier Mining (QCM) in the 1960s, the Mont Reed mining property has remained unexploited due to the complex nature of the ore in the area. However, during the last years ArcelorMittal’s R&D team has been dedicated to developing a process to beneficiate the Mont Reed ore and produce high-quality pellet feed suitable for direct reduction furnaces. Extensive research revealed that achieving a good liberation degree of particles required grinding the material below 75 μm (P80 of 53 μm). To find the most effective technology for this task, a detailed comparison between ball mill and vertical stirred mill grinding was conducted. Both grinding technologies underwent detailed testing in bench-scale experiments. The ground products were comprehensively characterised, including size distribution analysis and chemical analysis per size fraction. Additionally, liberation analysis was performed using an automated scanning electron microscope (SEM). To determine the grinding specific energy, a method previously developed at Samarco (Brazil) for fine grinding of iron ores was employed. Furthermore, magnetic separation and flotation tests were conducted on the ground products. After a thorough evaluation of all the results, it was observed that both ball mill and vertical stirred mill grinding produced samples with similar physical characteristics. However, the vertical mill demonstrated higher efficiency in grinding the material. To conclude the study, an economic evaluation was conducted for both options considering various factors. Overall, ArcelorMittal’s R&D team’s dedicated efforts have brought them closer to unlocking the potential of the Mont Reed ore deposit and paving the way for its future utilisation to the production of high-quality pellet feed.

Sep 18, 2023

No paper available.

Jan 1, 1996

By A J. Moore

Blasting operations in open cut mines results in airblast, ground vibration and rock movement with the potential for wild flyrock. In some mines there is a trend towards blasting closer to established infrastructure as extraction boundaries alter with increased resource prices and changed economic circumstances. Mine infrastructure in close proximity to blasting has the potential to be damaged by ground vibration and wild flyrock especially. To provide guidance for the determination of appropriate buffer distances and blast specifications, this paper describes methodologies that may be used to determine the potential for damage to infrastructure by predicting:dynamic blast;near field ground vibration levels;dynamic blast strains induced in infrastructure by consideration of ground vibration,ground strain and response amplification;potential for damage by comparing induced strains with allowable working strainsfrom structure design codes and serviceability requirements; andflyrock throw distances based on models developed from flyrock investigations.This report demonstrates the use of strain prediction methodologies developed during Australian Coal Association Research Programme (ACARP) Project C14057 for infrastructure such as conveyor belts, transmission poles and towers, buildings and bridges.

Nov 8, 2011

By R Salmimies

Choosing a ceramic capillary action filter is often favoured in processes where low energy consumption is important, such as the dewatering of iron ore. In addition, the performance of the filter medium is essential, and the possibility to regenerate the medium is an advantage compared to other types of filter media. Although low, roughly 8 - 9 w-per cent for iron ore concentrate, and even cake moisture is the primary goal of dewatering, the introduction of better filtration processes can result in significant improvements of water economy and material efficiency.As industrial beneficiation processes are often complicated in their chemistry due to impurities originating from the ore itself, from the up-stream processing equipment and from the process water used, the characterisation of the filter media after usage might provide relevant information on what actually takes place during long operating periods. The aim of this study was to obtain new information on the fouling of fi lter media in an iron ore process to enhance and develop the regeneration process of the media in the future.X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy were used to characterise ceramic filter media used in the dewatering of magnetite. Principal component analysis and discriminant analysis were introduced to identify trends in the data. Two types of media blockages were found to play an important role in an acidic iron ore dewatering process: fouling by slurry particles and by in situ crystallisation of a calcium compound, of which the latter originated from the combination of process water and process chemistry.

Jul 11, 2011

The new law on Environmental Protection and Management (Republic of Indonesia Law 32 of 2009) was passed by the Indonesian parliament in September 2009. This law aims to protect Indonesia's rapidly degrading environment by providing tougher provisions for both polluters and law enforcers. In doing so, the law introduces a number of new constraints and potential business risks that will affect all companies in Indonesia, particularly mining companies. Some of the newly introduced concepts follow.   Mining companies will now require an environmental license, issued by the Minister of Environment or local counterparts. This license is a prerequisite for all other business and operational permits. The Minister can revoke the environmental license at any time in case of an environmental incident or dispute. Mining companies may be exposed to additional environmental taxes and bonds besides already existing reclamation and mine closure bonds.   There is an increased risk of environmental lawsuits, due to more stringent controls on one side and greater protection for NGOs on the other side who make claims, false or true, against the company. Company executives and managers can be sued and they will be held accountable if environmental degradation has indeed occurred due to the company's activities.   Companies may face increased liabilities due to a change in the definition of contamination. The new definition is more stringent (and on occasion may prove too stringent to be practical); it also provides little room for flexibility in its application.   As implementing regulations are prepared over the coming two to three years, mining companies will need to adjust to the new law. A proactive approach is needed to minimise risk. Recommended actions include: upgrading existing environmental impact assessments to a higher standard; conducting baseline studies and thoroughly documenting environmental conditions on a regular basis; closely tracking regulatory changes, especially the forthcoming implementing regulations on the new environmental law; and regularly engaging key government and community stakeholders on environmental issues.

Jun 1, 2010

By K Gardner, R Fraval, V Singh

Using new technology to create optimised infill drill programs in underground or open pit settings, it is possible to quantify the value of a drill program. The computer designed programs are optimised to uplift the most amount of resource possible into the specified resource classification, while honouring geological, spatial, equipment and budgetary constraints. When designing ‘by hand’ balancing all these factors is a time-consuming effort with no real way to determine metrics on ‘how good’ a program will be. The optimisation considers many factors allowing geologists to apply critical thinking and domain knowledge to constrain the optimisation, letting the computer do the heavy lifting of determining hole placement. Once programs have been created, they can be integrated into a production schedule. This is a critical step in determining the correct sequencing and balancing of resource availability and seeing how a program will interoperate with other tasks in the mine. For example, if drill drives are a requirement for part of the program, will they be developed in a time frame that is useful for the goals of the program? Do we risk drilling infill holes too late to add value? Do we put production at risk by not classifying parts of the model ahead of time, thus adding to uncertainty? Using software to assist with optimising and scheduling of drilling is a useful technique to save the geologists from the mundanity of manually designing drill programs and puts metrics around the effectiveness of a program and has the potential to add quantifiable value to a program. Examples will be presented that demonstrate the effective use of drill hole optimisation, comparing manual designs with optimised designs, as well as the examples that show the effective use of scheduling.

Mar 22, 2022

By C Harrison, A Bowskill

The Ambuklao hydroelectric dam was originally constructed in the 1950s in the remote and mountainous region of the northern Philippines. Following its construction the dam has suffered heavily due to siltation and a partial collapse of the intake structure due to a 7.8 magnitude earthquake that struck the region in 1990. Between the years 1990 and 1999 the power station progressively lost its capacity to generate power. In 1999 the owner took the power station out of commission. The power station remained idle over the next 12 years. In 2008 the power station was sold to a new owner who commissioned the rehabilitation works.The rehabilitation project restored the operating status of the power station in June 2011 and increased its capacity from 75 MW to 105 MW. The civil contract of the rehabilitation project required the construction of a new intake structure behind an in situ rock coffer dam on the edge of the existing reservoir, new 6.2?m diameter × 124?m deep blind sunk shaft behind the intake structure, which connects to a new 6.8?m horseshoe profile headrace tunnel that ultimately connected onto the existing vertical penstocks which feed three No 35 MW Horizontal Turbines rated at 155?m head.The unique challenge in rehabilitating this existing hydropower station involved finding solutions that would conclusively deal with the challenging geological and hydrogeological conditions associated with excavating new tunnels and a drop shaft beneath a live dam.McConnell Dowell was awarded the civil works package for the rehabilitation works in August 2008. The Ambuklao rehabilitation program took 33 months to complete.Over 600?m of tunnels were excavated in highly weathered and often challenging geotechnical conditions via drill and blast with the extensive use of high-pressure fissure grouting to control groundwater ingress that was surcharged by the dam.This paper focuses on the use of high-pressure fissure grouting that took place to enable the excavation of the new waterway system and intake structure.CITATION:Bowskill, A and Harrison, C, 2014. High-pressure fissure grouting for drill and blast tunnelling, Ambuklao, Philippines, in Proceedings 15th Australasian Tunnelling Conference 2014 , pp 141–152 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 17, 2014

By W L. Daniels, C Stilson, C Zimmerman

Mineral sands mining for ilmenite, rutile and zircon has disturbed over 1000 ha of prime farmland in Virginia (USA) since 1997 and additional areas are likely to be disturbed in Virginia and North Carolina (USA) over the next 15 years. Full-scale mining operations at the Old Hickory Project in Virginia were initiated in 1997 by Iluka Resources Inc. and restoration protocols have continued to evolve in response to a variety of economic, technical and social issues. Early on, the return of these lands to agricultural row-crop production was complicated by vertical stratification of tails + slimes and lateral variability in soil physical conditions in the reclaimed pits and by limited topsoil return. Virginia Tech and Iluka have worked cooperatively with all stakeholders for over 20 years to review the pre-existing research base, conduct new and innovative site-specific research and thereby provide reasonable expectations of post-mining soil productivity levels. In 2004, Virginia Tech, Iluka Resources and a local leaseholder (Carraway-Winn family) agreed to jointly manage a 45 ha research demonstration farm where the long-term effects of alternative soil reconstruction practices are being rigorously monitored for both row crops (corn and wheat) and forage production. All mined land crop yields are also compared to an adjacent undisturbed exceptional quality prime farmland soil. Row crop yields between 2005 and 2010 were significantly above county average yields (regulatory target level) and approximately 75 - 80 per cent of undisturbed adjacent prime farmlands. The state regulatory authority has recently relaxed its position on the necessity of topsoil return versus use of topsoil substitutes based on appropriate on-site research results and the ability of the reclaimed soils to meet comparative local county crop yield targets. This cooperative effort allows all clientele groups to objectively assess the post-mining productivity of these mined lands while providing an invaluable educational opportunity for the mining industry. CITATION:Daniels, W L, Stilson, C and Zimmerman, C, 2012. Development of effective rehabilitation protocols for mineral sands mining in Virginia, USA, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2012 , pp 97-104 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 10, 2012