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By Rossiter Raymond

IT is scarcely necessary to augment or amend the "Appreciation" of Dr. Douglas, from the pen of Dr. Albert A. Ledoux, which appeared in January, 1916, in Bulletin -No. -109 of the Institute. The author of that admirable summary enjoyed the great privilege of expressing while Dr. Douglas was yet among us (though already marked for death) the love and esteem with which we all regarded him. But now that his earthly life has ended, the historian must still be the eulogist. No line need be added or deleted in the portrait of him already drawn; it has only to be accepted now as a true likeness, and hung in the gallery of the immortals, illuminated' by the crowning glory of another world. . James Douglas was born at Quebec, Canada, November 4, 18:37. His father, James Douglas, was a distinguished physician and surgeon, known in many lands, especially in the Orient, and famous in his own country for his philanthropy as well as his skill, having established and directed for many years the first retreat for the insane in the Dominion of Canada. One of the latest literary labors of the son was the editing and publishing of his father's journal and reminiscences-a fascinating volume, the review of which, though a tempting task, I must here forego. Nearly fifty years ago, I had the great pleasure of spending an hour with the elder. Douglas, who guided me through his collection of Egyptian and Asiatic treasures. I might almost say souvenirs; so many of them were connected with personal experiences and exalted personages. The veteran's memory had already begun to fail with age, but his vivacity and imagination glowed all the, more brightly; and his reminiscences of travel and adventure were embroidered with Oriental magnificence. I felt, after that hour, as if I had visited a stately, half-ruined edifice, overgrown with vines and flowers. The father's genius, adventurous spirit and generous philanthropy descended to his versatile, yet practical son. Like other men of such temperament, James Douglas tried many things before circumstances beyond his own control forced him into the line of his, principal lifework. At the age of 18, he was sent to the University of Edinburgh, where he studied for two years. Returning to Canada,, he entered Queen's University, at Kingston, Ontario, where he was graduated as Bachelor of Arts in 1858. Subsequently he studied medicine at Laval University, Quebec;

Jan 9, 1918

By Kenneth L. Cook

GEOPHYSICAL exploration is continuing to expand in scope and variety of methods, in experimental studies of specific applications, and in development of theory for complex situations. Aerial surveys have been made economically more attractive by simultaneous recording of magnetic and radioactivity data, and aerial electromagnetic surveys have been attempted. The most significant success of mining geophysics was the discovery of huge lead-zinc-copper sulphide ore deposits in New Brunswick, Canada. Spectacular geophysical astivity has occurred in the area as a result of these discoveries, and geophysics is expected to continue to play a large role in this drift-covered area. Other developments this year find the Atomic Energy Commission making available monthly reports of the location of anomalous radioactivity detected in aerial and ground surveys and the AEC is installing supersensitive radioactivity assaying instruments in about 25 localities in the U. S. Interest in helicopters is being aroused because of potentialities for near-ground surveys and better location control of anomalies. Japan can be added to the list of countries using geophysical surveys extensively.

Jan 2, 1954

By Joseph E. Pogue

The writer visited the Muzo emerald mines in July, 1915, and spent six days in their study. This paper embodies the results of his observations, plus information personally communicated by Robert Scheibe, Professor of Geology in the Mining Academy of Berlin, who at the time of the visit was completing a detailed field investigation of nearly a year's duration of the emerald deposits of Colombia. An elaborate account of this valuable work may be expected at a future date from the pen of Professor Scheibe.

Jan 1, 1917

By N. V. Melnikov, L. N. Marchenko

The latest theoretical and experimental study of physical processes initiated by explosions in solid media have made it possible to obtain a deeper insight into the mechanism of the energy transfer to ambient rock from char es of explosives interspersed with various air gaps. As shown in (17, high explosive action causes excessive fragmentation of medium in the vicinity of the charge, while expansion of the process into the massif is negligible. A theoretical outline of a more rational application of explosion energy was given with a view of obtaining more uniform fragmentation of rock convenient for loading and transportation. The proposed idea proven by experimental study consisted of the possibility of explosion control based on redistribution of explosion energy. Practical realization of the above idea was proposed (1) involving charges with air gaps for rock fragmentation. Since the Rolla Symposium on Mining Research (USA, 1961) (2), borehole charges with air gaps have become common practice. This method of rock blasting is applied in open cast and underground mines working the hardest and viscous, hard, medium hard and soft rocks (ore, quartzites, granites, 1 imes tones, sandstones, coals, etc.) as well as at enterprises for extraction of building materials and raw chemical minerals of any strength. Application of charges with air gaps results in an increase of the degree and uniformity of fragmentation (up to 94 percent of the blasted rock mass consists of fragments not exceeding 400 mm), the average fragment size decreases by 1.5-2 times and the amount of lumps is reduced by 2-10 times (in some cases there are no lumps at all ). Besides, the amount of operation for filling boreholes with tamping material is reduced, the specific consumption of explosives

Jan 1, 1971

Jan 1, 1963

By Robert C. Stephenson

Large deposits of titaniferous magnetite occur associated with anorthosite and gabbro in the Lake Sanford area, Essex County, New York. The ore, gabbro, and anortbosite show consanguineous relations. Anorthosite grades through gabbroic anortbosite into gabbro but is locally intruded by gabbro. Structural and petrographic evidence suggests that gabbro was differentiated from anorthosite by filter pressing. Field and laboratory study of ore occurrences indicates that an ore residuum concentrated in the gabbro through magmatic segregation' by normal crystallization and flowage. Ore occurs as bands which grade into gabbro, and also as large masses which replace anorthosite. Ore in the gabbro is finer grained and richer in ilmenite than ore in anorthosite. Introduction The Lake Sanford area lies in the heart of the Adirondack Mountains, in the southeast portion of the Santanoni Quadrangle (Fig. I), and there are four ore bodies in the area immediately surrounding Lake Sanford. The area lies 30 miles by highway from the railroad at North Creek. The deposits were discovered in 1826, and from then until 1858 iron was produced in small quantities. They were idle from 1858 to 1906. Between 1906 and 1913, extensive development work was carried on. These early attempts to produce iron ore were thwarted by transportation difficulties and by the titanium content of the ore, which, ironically, has been the element responsible for the present development. In 1941 the National Lead Co., Titanium Division, developed the Sanford Hill ore body and is now producing ilmenite and magnetite concentrates.18 The Defense Plant Corporation is extending the railroad to the property from North Creek and is building a sintering plant to treat the magnetite concentrate. Investigations OF the Deposits* Early studies of the Lake Sanford titaniferous magnetite deposits were made by Emmons in 1842,l2 by Kemp, in 1897-98'0 and by Newland in 1908.22 Singewald26 and Osborne23 considered these deposits along with numerous other titaniferous magnetite deposits in 1913 and 1928, respectively. None of these reports entailed a detailed study of the ore occurrence in this area. The present study was begun in 1940. Seven months were spent in the field, and considerable time was spent in labora-

Jan 1, 1949

By Robert C. Stephenson

Large deposits of titaniferous magnetite occur associated with anorthosite and gabbro in the Lake Sanford area, Essex County, New York. The ore, gabbro, and anortbosite show consanguineous relations. Anorthosite grades through gabbroic anortbosite into gabbro but is locally intruded by gabbro. Structural and petrographic evidence suggests that gabbro was differentiated from anorthosite by filter pressing. Field and laboratory study of ore occurrences indicates that an ore residuum concentrated in the gabbro through magmatic segregation' by normal crystallization and flowage. Ore occurs as bands which grade into gabbro, and also as large masses which replace anorthosite. Ore in the gabbro is finer grained and richer in ilmenite than ore in anorthosite. Introduction The Lake Sanford area lies in the heart of the Adirondack Mountains, in the southeast portion of the Santanoni Quadrangle (Fig. I), and there are four ore bodies in the area immediately surrounding Lake Sanford. The area lies 30 miles by highway from the railroad at North Creek. The deposits were discovered in 1826, and from then until 1858 iron was produced in small quantities. They were idle from 1858 to 1906. Between 1906 and 1913, extensive development work was carried on. These early attempts to produce iron ore were thwarted by transportation difficulties and by the titanium content of the ore, which, ironically, has been the element responsible for the present development. In 1941 the National Lead Co., Titanium Division, developed the Sanford Hill ore body and is now producing ilmenite and magnetite concentrates.18 The Defense Plant Corporation is extending the railroad to the property from North Creek and is building a sintering plant to treat the magnetite concentrate. Investigations OF the Deposits* Early studies of the Lake Sanford titaniferous magnetite deposits were made by Emmons in 1842,l2 by Kemp, in 1897-98'0 and by Newland in 1908.22 Singewald26 and Osborne23 considered these deposits along with numerous other titaniferous magnetite deposits in 1913 and 1928, respectively. None of these reports entailed a detailed study of the ore occurrence in this area. The present study was begun in 1940. Seven months were spent in the field, and considerable time was spent in labora-

Jan 1, 1949

By R. S. French, W. R. Hibbard

FOR tensile deformation, if the stress value is defined by the ratio of the load to the actual area, and the strain value by the natural logarithm of the ratio of the immediate length to the original gauge length of the sample, the resulting data when plotted with logarithmic coordinates result in a linear relation extending from the initial plastic yielding through the maximum load and in some cases, such as for copper and brass, to fracture'.'. The normal form of the curve, therefore, is a parabola, satisfying the following equation: S = Kem [1] where S and e represent true stress and strain, K is a constant, and m is a coefficient evaluating the slope of the curve and designated therefore as the strain hardening coefficient. Hollomon² has reported that this coefficient is a function of the yield strength as effected by grain size in alpha brass, and the carbon content and heat treatment of steel. In the case of steel, the value of the proportionality constant is a function of the carbon content. It was further shown in that paper2 and also by Low and Prater -hat, if the power relation between stress and strain remains valid, the strain hardening coefficient m, is equal to the strain at the maximum or necking load. Thus, an added significant feature is that this coefficient may serve as an index of the capacity for deformation prior to localized necking and subsequent fracture, e.g. drawability. The constant K may be defined as the strength of the material at unit strain. Together the K constant and the m coefficient describe an alloy's physical properties as far as strength and ductility are concerned for a particular yield strength and, in the case of steel, a particular carbon content. The work of Lacy and Gensamer4 gives data on alloy ferrites from which very close estimates of the strength of ternary and higher iron alloys have been made. It was the purpose of this investigation to develop similar data for commercial copper base alpha solid solution alloys. Preparation of Specimens Commercial binary alloys of copper with aluminum, beryllium, cadmium, nickel, silicon, tin and zinc were investigated. In addition, laboratory castings were made of a 1 pct silicon alloy and a 2 pct aluminum alloy to complete these particular series. Two types of copper were used, oxygen free OFHC and tough pitch FC. The analyses of these alloys are shown in table I. Standard ASTM sheet tensile specimens were used to determine the usual physical properties of each alloy and to obtain stress data at strains from 0.0005 to 0.01. Small (1/4 in. x 3 in. x tk.) samples

Jan 1, 1951

On the Art of Metallography (Howe Memorial Lecture), by F. F. Lucas; Beneficiation of Iron Ore. Abstract of paper by C. E. Williams followed by Round Table Discussion; A Statistical Analysis of Blast-furnace Data, by R. 8. McCaffery and R. G. Stephenson; Air Discharge of Circular Tuyeres, by R. S. McCaffery and D. E. Krause; Open-hearth Steel Process as a Problem in Chemical Kinetics. by E. R. Jette; Carbon-oxygen Equilibrium in Liquid Iron, by H. C. Vacher and E. H. Hamilton; A Thermodynamic Study of the Phasial Equilibria in the Bystem Iron-carbon (Abstract), by Yap, Chu-Phay; Influence of Dissolved Carbide on the Equilibria of the System Iron-carbon (Abstract), by Yap, Chu-Phay; Inclusions and Their Effect on Impact Strength of Steel, I and 11, by A. B. Kinzel and W. Crafts: Method for Electrolytic Extraction of MnO, MnS, FeS and Si02, Inclusions from Plain Carbon Steels, by G. R. Fitterer; Permanent Growth of Gray Cast Iron, by W. E. Remmers; Some Notes on Blue Brittleness, by L. R. van Wert; Austenite-pearlite Transformation and the Transition Constituents, by A. Sauveur; Age-hardening of Austenite, by F. R. Hensel; Transformational Characteristics of Iron-manganese Alloys, by H. Scott; Composition Limits of the Alpha-gamma Loop in the Iron-tungsten System, by W. P. Sykes; Magnetic Properties Versus AUotropic Transformations of Iron Alloys, by T. D. Yensen and N. A. Ziegler; Dilatometric Study of Chrome-nickel-iron Alloys, by V. N. Krivobok and M. Gensamer; Low-carbon Steel, by H. B. Pulsifer; Bright Annealing of Steels in Hydrogen, by F. C. KeUey; Development of Continuous Gas Carburieing, by R. J. Cowan. Transactions, Institute of Metals Division, 1931. 500 pages. Index. Papers and discussions presented before the Division at Chicago, Sept. 22-26, 1930 and New York, Feb. 16-19, 1931. X-ray MetallograpIhy: X-ray Determination of Alloy Equilibrium Diagrams (Annual Lecture), by A. F. Westgren; Suppressed Constitutional Changes in Alloys. by G. Sachs; Texture of Metals after Cold Deformation; by F. Wever. Theoretical Metallurgy: Studies upon the Widmanatitten Structure. I.—Introduction. The Aluminum-eilver System and the Copper-silicon System; by R. F. Mehl and C. S. Barrett; Studies upon the Widmanstatten Structure, 11.—The Beta Copper-einc Alloys and the Beta Copper-alumnum Alloys, by R. F. Mehl and 0. T. Mareke; Application of X-rays in the Manufacture of Telephone Apparatus, by M. Baeyerts; Thermal Conductivity of Copper Alloys. 11.—Copper-tin Alloys; 111.—Copper-phosphorus Alloys, by Cyril Stanley Smith; Thermodynamic Study of the Equilibria of the Systems Antimony-bismuth and Antimony-lead, by Yap, Chu-Phay. Ganeral: Cemented Tungsten Carbide; a Study of the Action of the Cementing Material, by L. L. Wyman and F. C. Kelley; Influence of Casting Practice on Physical Properties of Die Castings, by C. Pack; Fabrication of the Platinum Metals, by C. S. Sivil; Effect of Certain Alloying Elements on Structure and Hardness of Aluminum Bronze, by 9. F. Hermann and F. T. Sisco. The WorkinG oF Metals: Metal Working in Power Presses, by E. V. Crane; Forming Properties of Thin Sheets of Some Nonferrous Metals, by W. A. Straw, M. D. Helfrick and C. R. Fischrupp; Die Pressing of Braas and Copper Alloys, by J. R. Freeman. Jr.; Plasticity of Copper-sina Alloys at Elevated Temperatures. by A. Morris: Directional Properties in Cold-rolled and Annealed Copper, by A. Phillips and E. 9. Bunn; Effect of Combinations of Strain and Heat Treatment on Properties of Some Age-hardening Copper Alloys by W. C. Ellis and E. E. Schumacher; Constituents of Aluminum-iron-silicon Alloys, by W, L. Fink and K. R. Van Horn; Equilibrium Relations in Aluminum-antimony Alloys of High Purity, by E. H. Dix, Jr., F. KeUer and L. A. Willey; Equilibrium Relations in Aluminum-magnesium Silicide Alloys of High Purity, by E. H. Dix. Jr., F. Keller and R. W. Graham; Constitution of High-purity Aluminum-titanium Alloys, by W. L. Fink, K. R. Van Horn and P. M. Budge; Experiments on Retarding the Age-hardening of Duralumin, by E. H. Dix. Jr. and F. KeUer; Aluminum-silicon-magnesium Casting Alloys, by R. S. Archer and L. W. Kempf; Modulurr of Elasticity of Aluminum Alloys, by R. L. Templin and D. A. Paul; Quenching of Alclad Sheet in Oil, by H. C. Knerr.

Jan 1, 1931

By C. H. P. Lupis, Henri Gaye

There are m -I conditions for the stability of a solution of m components with respect to infinitesinzal flucturations. However, in most cases, only one of these conditions has to be considered to determine the domain of instability and the existence of this more restrictive condition greatly simplifies the calculations. It may be used advantageously for the prediction of miscibility gaps and the method is illustrated in details for the case of the Ag-Pb-Zn system. THE thermodynamic conditions for the formation of a miscibility gap may be viewed as a necessary consequence of the conditions for spinodal decomposition. A previous article1 has examined in detail the form of these conditions for multicomponent systems. There is only one condition for the stability of a binary system (with respect to infinitesimal fluctuations), but there are two conditions for a ternary system, and m — 1 conditions for an m-component system. The probability of violating a stability condition, and thus forming a miscibility gap, obviously increases with the number of components, a result which is rather intuitive since the atoms of the solution have now many more ways of redistributing themselves and introducing complexities in the form of the free energy hy-persurface. It is of interest to take advantage of this possibility of precipitating new phases and to examine which stability condition is the likeliest to be violated, that is, which stability condition is thermodynamically the most restrictive. The finding of such a condition would greatly simplify the application of the stability criteria since only one condition could then be considered, instead of m - 1. In Ref. 1, coherency strain energy terms were neglected, thus restricting the applications of the treatment to solutions where they are negligible, such as liquid alloys. In the following study the same assumption will be made. To generalize the treatment to systems where the strain energy terms are sizable, the reader is referred to Cahn's classical article on spinodal decomposition.2 Let us designate by Gij the second derivative of the Gibbs free energy with respect to the number of moles ni and n j. There are several equivalent sets of m — 1 stability conditions.' The one considered here expresses that the successive diagonal determinants of order 1, 2, ... m — 1, associated with the symmetric Gij matrix (for 2 5 i, j 5 m) are positive.' For a binary solution 1-2, the condition for stability is: O(u=G22^0 [1] For a ternary system 1-2-3, the condition [I.] is re- tained (the value of G22 will differ, of course, according to the concentration of 3) and another condition is introduced: £>(21 = G22G33 - Gl3 ^ 0 [2] In a composition diagram, these two conditions define two domains of instability. Starting at a point where the solution is stable (for instance at a point where the solution is very dilute) we gradually change the composition until the condition [I] or [2] is violated. As already noted in the literature, e.g., in the work of Prigogine and Defay,3 it is the boundary of the domain (2) which is first crossed. For if we assume that the boundary of the domain (1) is reached first, at this point G22 = 0 and the second condition is necessarily violated (D(2) = -& 5 0), in contradiction with our original assumption. An exhaustive study of the ternary regular solution case may be found in the work of Meijering.4 Moreover if the boundaries of the two domains have a common point, they also have a common tangent. For if the two lines were to cross each other as is illustrated in Fig. 1(a) any point M in the line QP would be such that £> = 0 and 0"' > 0 which, as shown above, are incompatible results. Thus, the two lines must be tangent at their common point Q as illustrated in the example of Fig. l(b). The reasoning of Fig. l(a) implies that the point Q is not a "singular" point for either boundary line. This singularity may be of two types. First, the lines meet without crossing each other and without being tangent. Second, the tangent at Q for D"' or 0"' is not single-valued. Other types of singularity are unlikely because of the usual analytical forms of D"' and 0"'. The exception to the common tangent requirement due to the first type of singularity was pointed out by John Morral;5 it occurs when the common point, Q' or (3" in Fig. l(b), is located at a boundary of the composition diagram, e.g., at the line X3 = 0. It may also be noted that at the common nonsingular point Q of D(1) and D(2), Fig. 1(b), G23 is necessarily equal to zero, whereas at a point such as Q' or Q", this conclusion is no longer valid because the product G22G33 is now indefinite (of the form 0. a). The exception to the common tangent requirement due to the second type of singularity occurs when two branches of the same boundary line intersect, for example when D(1)or D(2) decomposes into a product of functions, at a point which belongs to the boundary of the other condition. It is possible to show by a simple analytical calculation that, in this case, if Q is a singular point of D(1), then it is necessarily a singular point of D(2), and that the reciprocal is true except if G33 = 0 at Q. For the present article, however, more elaboration on these singularities appears to be unwarranted. To generalize the previous results to an m -component system, we use the mathematical theorem stating that if the diagonal determinant D(r) = 0, then

Jan 1, 1970

By H. E. Rorschach

Oil-field activities in Oklahoma made 1936 the best year since 1930. Approximately 2800 wells were completed, an increase of about 20 per cent over 1935. Purchasers' reports filed with the Corporation Commission showed a total of 200,240,252 bbl. of oil purchased from leases in 1936. The assembly of a complete table of the oil fields of the state was not achieved, as many of the early records of operators and pipe-line companies are not complete, and data for the older fields will perhaps never be fully tabulated. Table 1 includes all of the new fields and most of the important fields of the State of Oklahoma. The outstanding developments of the year were: the discovery of rich Wilcox-sand production in the Moore pool; the spectacular drilling campaign in the Capitol or Mansion extension in the Oklahoma City pool; the surprising extension of the Olympic pool and the Hunton lime zone in the Fitts pool; and the failure to find more Ordovician production in southern Oklahoma. Wildcat discoveries, which were on a par with 1935, resulted in the discovery of such promising pools as Billings-Wilcox, North Bethel, North Earlsboro and North Lucien. The Fitts-Upper Simpson, Edmond, Jesse, Keokuk Falls and South Burbank pools underwent considerable development. Fitts Pool.—The Fitts area in Pontotoc County was greatly extended during the year and was the leader in drilling activity in the state. The producing limits were pushed to the east and north and the development of the Hunton lime horizon was outstanding. In the Upper Simpson zone 162 wells were completed; 137 in the Hunton lime zone and 26 in the Wilcox zone. The Oil Creek zone, a sand body below the Wilcox member, was discovered by the Magnolia-Statler No. 3 well located in the 1/4. 1/4 of sec. 28-2N.-7E. Moore Pool.—The Moore pool, in Cleveland County, which was opened in 1935 by the Sinclair Prairie-Franklin Community No. 1 well, surprised the oil industry when the Sinclair Prairie-Marvel No. 1 well, on Apr. 1, 1936, discovered a rich body of Wilcox sand below the distillate

Jan 1, 1937

By Paul Tyler

STRATEGICALLY situated in almost the heart of the leading fertilizer-consuming area of the United States, Tennessee long has ranked second only to Florida as a phosphate-producing state. Since 1932 its share of the national output of phosphate rock has increased steadily, and in 1937 its production mounted to an all-time record. More significant even than the increase in tonnage are the forward strides in technology. The Tennessee Valley Authority's research program has led to quasicommer-cial operations using hydroelectric power to manufacture concentrated phosphatic fertilizer that is used to further the farmer education program designed to streamline the fertilizer business and halt the appalling waste of farm land by soil erosion. Even more stimulating to chemically minded imaginations is the production of elemental phosphorus by a private company that not only has succeeded in extracting it from the phosphate rock in electric furnaces but actually has contrived to capture it and to transport it safely in tank cars. New values have been created for low-grade phosphate deposits, and the economic life of reserves has been lengthened while the waste of former years goes back into the mills for recovery of its values by modernized methods. Tennesse's phosphate-mining industry dates from the discovery of blue rock in Lewis County in December 1893. Its known reserves are of the order of 101,500,000 tons, which compares with the production of 825,099 tons in 1937; that is, 21 per cent of the phosphate-rock output of the whole nation. The total output reported from 1894 until July 1, 1938, was approximately 19,000,000 tons. Official estimates of reserves are overly conservative and evidence submitted before a joint Con-gressional committee in November 1938 places "probable" reserves at more than 6,000,000,000 tons.

Jan 1, 1939

By J. B. Campbell, V. V. Valleroy, B. T. Willman, L. W. Powers

A steam drive of heavy oil was field tested in a shallow, low oil-saturation formation near Deerfield, Mo. The pilot was conducted in the Warner formation, a sandstone containing an 18' API oil having 1,000-cp viscosity at the 60F origind reservoir temperature. The formation war at a depth of 160 ft. Steam was injected into nine input wells arranged in an array of inverted five-spot patterns. In the completely confined center pattern, 14 temperature observation wells were installed to obtain thermal data and observe test progress. Late in the test, slugs of ammonia were injected to trace the flow paths of injected fluids. From the test area about 7,000 bbl of oil were produced. Data were obtained on areal and vertical temperature distribution, steam front advance, reservoir fluid movement and terminal saturations. This field test of a steam drive (I) demonstrated the feasibility of the method, (2) confirmed that the low residual oil saturations observed in the laboratory are obtained in the steam-swept region in the field and (3) provided recovery and conformance data for one set of field conditions. INTRODUCTION The Deerfield steam drive pilot test was conducted in a shallow sandstone containing 1,000-cp oil. The venture was undertaken cooperatively by the research and production departments of Carter Oil Co., which organizations have since been consolidated into Esso Production Research Co. and Humble Oil & Refining Co.. respectively. The production department was interested in steam injection at Deerfield because it appeared to be the most promising method of commercially producing this heavy oil deposit. The research department was interested in applying the new recovery method and in evaluating its performance in the field. At the time the test was begun, the initial oil saturation was not well known. Subsequent air coring and early pilot results confirmed that there was too little oil in place for profitable commercial exploitation by steam. Pilot termination at that time, however, would have been premature for evaluating field performance of the process, and the tert was continued to obtain additional data on steam injection as a recovery method. The test was located in Vernon County, Mo., about 10 miles north of the town of Deerfield and only a few miles from the Kansas border. The pilot site was selected as typical of the area. The location represented neither the highest nor the lowest oil saturation region in the acreage under lease in 1954. The steam drive was conducted in the Warner sandstone of Lower Pennsylvanian age. At the test site the top of the Warner occurs at about 160 ft subsurface and the formation is a fine- to medium-grained micaceous sandstone that dips gently to the northwest at the rate of 12 to 15 ft/ mile. A cross-section and permeability profile of the test location are shown in Fig. 1. At the pilot location the average total thickness of the Warner formation is about 43 ft, but the effective thickness for steam drive is 26 ft. Two distinct types of hydrocarbon saturation are apparent. The lower portion of the total sand, averaging about 17 ft thick, contains a very heavy asphaltic material that will not flow under the influence of a steam drive. This bottom interval, referred to as a dead oil residue, was not considered as part of the net sand undergoing steam exploitation. The initial formation and fluid properties of the upper 26 ft in the test area are summarized in Table 1, and variation of oil viscosity with temperature is shown in Fig. 2. Imbibition tests on preserved core samples taken at the end of the pilot test showed that the Warner sandstone was then neutral or slightly water-wet. Initially, the reservoir may have been strongly water-wet as indicated by low relative permeability to water during both water injection testing and early steam injection. PRIOR HISTORY Initial production tests of wells at the pilot site produced water with only a faint show of oil. No gas was produced except at Well 7-W in the pilot area and at another well about 1/3 mile northeast of the pilot. Prior to the start of the steam drive, a two-well water injection test and a two-well air injection test were conducted. No oil was produced by either. Water was pumped into Well I-W in the northeast corner of the pilot area with simultaneous production from Well 1 (Fig. 3). The air-injection tat was run at input Well 9-W and its offset, Well 2, in the southwest corner. Air and water injectivities were about the same when corrected for viscosity and pressure differences.

By J. J. Bean

Concentrating mixed sulfide-oxide copper ores by the leach-precipitation-flotation method is an old operation at the Miami Copper Co. The idea was conceived and the method developed at Miami by F. W. Maclennan and Harmon Keyes during the years 1929 to 1934, and it was these men who gave the term LPF to this process. Miami at that time had considerable reserves of mixed sulfide-oxide ore.* In the development of a suitable treatment method, it was natural that leaching of the oxides with acid and the precipita¬tion of copper from the resulting copper sulfate solution by iron was investigated. The separation… • The term oxide as used in this article includes the copper oxides, carbonates, and silicates.

Jan 12, 1960

By Donald A. Brobst

The minerals barite (BaSO4-barium sulfate) and witherite (BaCO3-barium carbonate) are the chief commercial sources of the element barium and its compounds whose many uses are nearly hidden among the technical complexities of modern industrial processes and products. Barite, the major ore mineral, is extremely vital to the petroleum industry which in 1980 consumed at least 90% of the world's production of 8.8 million tons as a major ingredient of the heavy fluid, called mud, that is circulated in rotary drilling of oil and gas wells. The remaining 10% of the barite production was consumed chiefly in the manufacture of barium chemicals and glass and as a pigment, filler, and extender. Barite occurs throughout much of the world and is available from three major geologic types of deposits-vein and cavity filling, residual, and bedded-in sufficient quantity at competitive prices to meet current demands. The world's demand for barite is expected to increase, and geologic circumstances are favorable for the discovery of new deposits of commercial value. Witherite is much less common and abundant than barite, although it is more desirable in many ways as a raw material for the production of barium chemicals. The United States has not produced witherite since about 1950; England is currently the chief producer of witherite. End Uses Most of the world's barite production since 1926 has been used as a weighting agent for the muds circulated in rotary drilling of oil and gas wells. The muds fundamentally are mixtures of water, clay, and barite in different proportions that vary according to local reservoir conditions. Muds with a specific gravity as great as 2.5 are used. The mud is pumped down the hollow drill stem, passes through the bit at the bottom of the hole, and rises to the surface in the space between the drill stem and the wall of the hole. In the course of this circulation the drill bit is cooled, cuttings are removed, the drill stem is lubricated, the walls of the hole are sealed, and the hydrostatic head of the column of weighted fluid helps to confine high oil and gas pressures. The latter feature aids in prevention of gushers, thus reducing both environmental pollution and waste of oil and gas resources as well as conserving the natural reservoir pressure for greater production and rate of recovery of the products contained in the rocks. Barite is particularly well suited for drilling mud because it is clean, easy to handle, soft (nonabrasive), heavy, virtually inert chemically, and relatively inexpensive compared to many other available heavy materials. Barite is used in the manufacture of glass in continuous tanks. The addition of barite homogenizes the melt and gives greater brilliance and clarity to the finished glass. Ground barite, both unbleached and bleached by sulfuric acid, is a common industrial filler, extender, and weighting agent. The rubber industry is a major consumer of barite as a filler. Barite also is added to bristolboard, heavy printing paper, playing cards, rope finishes, brake linings, clutch facings, plastics, and linoleum, to name but a few uses. Bleached barite has long been an extender in white lead paint because of its weight. The low index of refraction of barite, however, makes its ability to cover marks poorer than some other substances, but its low capacity for absorption of oil is a good feature. Off-color or unbleached barite can be used as a filler in colored paints. In the construction industry, some lump barite is used in concrete aggregate to weigh down pipelines buried in marshy areas and to shield nuclear reactors. Because barite absorbs gamma radiation well, its use reduces the amount of expensive lead shielding otherwise

Jan 1, 1983

By J. W. Pugh, J. D. Nisbet

THIS study of the ternary has been made as one phase of a metallurgical investigation which began nearly four years ago in the General Electric Company's Research Laboratory in Schenectady, N. Y. The objective of this program is the discovery of new metallurgical information which will lead to the development of better high-temperature materials. Combinations of the four pure base elements—iron, chromium, nickel, and cobalt—are being studied at the present time. It is essential in an investigation such as this to know as much as possible about the constitutional diagrams involved. The study of the iron-chromium-nickel system has been made to this end. Preliminary Explanation of Experimental Procedure: In all, fifty-five alloys at steps of 10 at. pct were made for the investigation of this ternary. Several ternary alloys in the chromium rich corner had to be omitted because their extreme brittleness made testing impractical. All alloys were vacuum melted with hydrogen reduction and centrifugally cast. The apparatus and technique of this process has been described in detail by Nisbet.1,2 The purity of the alloys prepared in this way is considered to be quite good. Impurities are listed as follows: Pct Carbon.............................0.02 Oxygen................................0.02 Nitrogen.........................0.005 Magnesium..................0.03-0.05 Sulphur...........................trace Hydrogen....................trace Phosphorous..................trace Silicon........................ trace After casting, all samples were given a homo-genization treatment which consisted of holding them for 15 hr at 1150°C (2100°F) and water quenching. Testing was begun with the samples in this condition. The tests employed in the study of this system were (1) dilatometer, (2) hardness versus aging temperature, (3) tensile strength and elongation versus temperature, (4) microstructure analysis, and (5) electrical resistance versus temperature. Dilatometer tests were made at the rather rapid heating rate of 1093°C (2000°F) in one hour on a Bristol-Rockwell type instrument. Hardness data were taken on specimens cooled from 204", 427", 649°, 760°, 871°, 982°, and 1093°C under conditions which are thought sufficient to bring the specimens to equilibrium in all but the cases of the very sluggish transformations. Electrical resistance data for several specimens were taken for both heating and cooling conditions in a vacuum furnace especially designed for this work by D. W. Bainbridge, formerly of this laboratory. Provisions were made for heating and cooling standard specimens at a constant rate, while autographic records of resistance and temperature were made simultaneously. Micrographs of all the alloys were made in the quenched condition. Some question may exist as to how such physical values as hardness, tensile strength, and elongation were interpreted to indicate a change in phase. Original data were recorded on physical property versus temperature graphs, each of which was made from the data of a single alloy (fig. la). From these, another series of graphs were plotted with the physical property as a function of composition for constant temperatures (fig. 1b). Sharp deviations in the slope of these composition versus hardness curves often indicate a change in phase. The example of fig. 1 will serve to describe this experimental technique. The plotting of a single point from graph "a" to graph "b," and finally to the phase diagram "c," is illustrated. The location of the point on graph "b" is indicated as point (1). If all the alloys of the A-B binary system were solid solutions at temperature X, the hardness in this curve would be expected to rise at a fairly even rate as A is diluted with B to a maximum at some intermediate value between A and B, as

Jan 1, 1951

Jan 1, 1969

By L. W. McKeehan

THE occurrence of twins in large ferrite crystals, made by a new process, was reported in a recent note. This paper describes a typical case of such twinning and suggests, on the basis of the observed facts, why smooth slip-planes are rarely observed in this metal. METHOD OF PREPARATION The material In which the crystals here dealt with were grown was made from 1/8 -in. Armco iron welding rod containing C, 0.04; S, 0.037; P, 0.003; Si, 0.008, and Mn, 0.02 per cent. This rod was cold drawn into wire about 1 mm. dia. A piece of this wire was supported vertically and was locally heated in hydrogen at atmospheric pressure to about 1400° C. by an alternating current (60 cycles per sec.) of about 35 amp., passed through it between a pair of travelling contacts about 8 cm. apart. The rate of travel for the case in hand was 12 cm. per hr. After some 30 cm. of the length of the wire had been heated and cooled in this manner the whole wire was immersed for a few seconds in dilute nitric acid, not restrained by alcohol. Etching was continued until, as nearly as could be judged by eye, the original smooth cylindrical surface of the wire was no longer capable of specular reflection.

Jan 1, 1927

William Clinton Brown, Brooklyn, N. Y.: The demand for an apparatus for cooling water for condensers, refrigeratingmachinery and air-compressors, as well as water-jacketed furnaces, has led manufacturers to put such an apparatus on the market, so that it is now possible to purchase a cooling-tower, properly designed and constructed, by simply stating the amount of water to be cooled and the temperatures of the hot and the cold water. The principle is similar to that described by Mr. Henrich, but wood is not used in the best apparatus. There are two great objections to wood: First, it cannot last long under the very trying conditions to which it is subjected; and second, it absorbs the organic matter with which water in constant use becomes impregnated, and the resulting odor is very disagreeable. A few days ago I saw a cooling-tower and condenser, built by the Henry R. Worthington Co., in operation at the Edison electric-lighting station in Brooklyn, N. Y., cooling the water for a 700 horse-power condenser. It consisted of a large stack of iron, about 15 feet in diameter by about 30 feet high. This stack was filled with tiling through which the water falls. A whirligig distributes the water evenly over the top, and a large fan, about 6 feet in diameter, driven by a 10 horse-power electric motor, blows air into the bottom, thus giving a positive circulation. The water, in running down the sides of the tiling, is met by the blast of air, and enough is evaporated to cool the rest. The vacuum-gauge on the condenser showed 26 inches; so the condenser was undoubtedly getting sufficient cool water.

Jan 1, 1896

EUROPE continued to be unsettled, financially, commercially and socially. October opened with Germany in a state of turmoil following the Government's cessation of passive resistance to the French and Belgians. In many places there were riots with much bloodshed. In Bavaria a military dictator-ship was set up in order to keep peace. In the meanwhile France continued in an uncom-promising position.. Great Britain, having been diplo-matically discredited, disappeared from any prominence in the international picture. Under the constraint of circumstances the policy of deflation in Great. Britain was temporarily abandoned. Perhaps no other course was open, for with declining trade and heavily reduced revenue, and no chance for cutting expenses propor-tionately, a check to deflation comes of its own accord. The effects of this should become manifest in the course of a few months and should appear in the form of an improved margin between the prices for commodities and the wage costs in producing them. About Oct. 20 an effort was made to set up the Rheinland as a separate republic. On Oct. 26 were published communications from Lord Curzon to Secre-tary Hughes and the latter's reply. In these Lord Curzon drew attention to the gravity of the situation in Europe and expressed the hope that France might listen to renewed suggestions for a general inquiry. Secretary Hughes promised American cooperation, in this, with the reservation that the question of inter-national debts should not enter into the situation. In the latter part of October there were military mutinies and disorders in Greece, which resulted in the reestablishment of martial law by order of Col. Plas-tiras, who is virtually the dictator of Greece. The incipient revolt was promptly crushed.

Jan 10, 1923