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By C. L. Popp

The scope is to address issues confronted by parties in the mining industry such as: Mine planners, survey and engineering departments, field teams and subcontractors. Describing approaches and best practices for assembling a project team to identify and create modeling requirements and to implement beneficial results. 3D Machine Control and Guidance tools continue to reduce project risk and attract quality resources with skill sets new to the earthmoving industry. These tools increase production, reduce rework and help with government permitting.

May 1, 2013

By D. van der Veen

Mining companies and contractors are looking at Wirtgen Surface Miners to provide flexibility at their operations. Wirtgen Surface Miners have been used in the surface mining industry for over fifteen years. The principle behind the Wirtgen Miner is a rotating drum equipped with tungsten carbide tipped cutting tools that excavates and sizes the material. The drum helix augurs the mined material to the center of the drum where it is loaded onto the primary conveyor belt. From there the material is conveyed to the discharge belt and into a truck bed. The cutting drum is located in the center of the machine, near the center of gravity. This permits the machine to cut hard materials as the entire machine weight is converted into cutting forces. Conventional mining practices are process, equipment, and labor intensive. Furthermore, strict environmental requirements pertaining to noise levels, dust pollution, and blasting, near buildings or urban areas, limit the application of conventional methods. Mining/ Construction contractors are using Wirtgen Miners in various limestone excavation projects, such as highway expansion projects, and new roads in housing developments. Mining companies in the industrial minerals and coal industry are using Wirtgen Miners to load directly onto trucks, eliminating the rehandling process and ultimately, primary crushers.

Jan 1, 2002

By Becerra J. O

HYL developed a direct reduction process (DR) that does not require a reformer; it is called self-reforming process. Typically, direct reduction processes based on natural gas utilise a reformer unit to transform the natural gas into reducing agents (hydrogen and carbon monoxide). The reforming reactions are: CH4+H20-?3H2+CO CH4 + CO2 - 2H2 + 2CO These reforming units require a catalyst agent to promote the kinetics of the reforming reactions. The catalyst for these reactions is typically a metallic element such as nickel in a ceramic matrix; iron is also an excellent catalyst for the reforming reactions.

Jan 1, 1999

By P. S. G. Leon

One of the most difficult areas in concession contracts in resource-rich developing countries is achieving an equitable balance between the interests of investors, host states and, increasingly, mine and near mine communities. While some countries in the Andean region have resorted to outright or creeping expropriation of natural resource contracts under the guise of resource nationalism, others such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), have claimed international best practice in the review (and setting aside) of important concession contracts.

Jan 1, 2011

By Tony Peglas, Harry Asche, Eva Wood

The North-South Bypass Tunnel is a new $AUD1.5 billion underground traffic route in Queensland, Australia, a project of the Brisbane City Council. The tunnel is approximately 5.2 km long, bypassing the Central Business District, and is adjacent to and below major buildings and services. Road tunnel alignment issues include the complex southern connections to the Pacific Motorway and the design of ramps to the east and the north. A review of road tunnel alignment criteria and accident data for Australian and overseas tunnels, similar to the proposed NSBT, are discussed. The key findings of this review lead to a rationalization of the traditional tunnel cross sectional width allocation. The road alignment design elements adopted for the NSBT are also discussed. The NSBT route crosses beneath the Brisbane River. Geotechnical investigations and hydrogeological modelling are described. The crossing has a fundamental impact on the alignment and the tunnelling methods. The tunnelling methods to be adopted and the tunnel support are described. The geotechnical investigations and hydrogeology analysis culminate in the selection of a single shielded TBM for the reference design. These outcomes are related to complex issues of hydrogeology and contaminated groundwater. These are discussed in detail.

Jan 1, 2005

Fragmentation Characteristics of Iron Ores from Anshan, China

Sep 13, 2010

By H. J. Gerritsen

From presently available components a portable, rugged, reliable apparatus can be built which will be able to detect methane concentrations of 0.1% and lower in air. Sensitivity and design considerations of the apparatus are given. Ways to build even simpler and cheaper apparatus in the future are indicated. Traditionally the problem of detecting and monitoring the presence of dangerous gases present in small concentrations in air has been a difficult one. Whether canaries,' or sophisticated chemical or thermal conductivity methods are used, they seem to be either slow, cumbersome, or otherwise not completely satis factory. A seemingly natural way of gas detection is to measure the strength of absorption undergone by light of a wavelength that the gas to be detected absorbs. This method has been difficult to apply in view of the low power output over a narrow wavelength range in the infrared from traditional glow bar light sources. Besides, the apparatus to select such a narrow band of wavelengths is quite costly and complex. The use of a laser solves these problems simultaneously. Although a variety of lasers are available to detect a variety of gases (such as carbon monoxide or methane) whose early detection would be desirable, this paper deals exclusively with the use of lasers for methane detection. ABSORPTION SPECTRUM OF METHANE IN AIR The absorption spectrum of pure methane is very well known.2-4 There are four fundamental vibrations, all occurring in the infrared of which only two absorb strongly. They occur at 3.3 µ and 7.7 µ. The absorption spectrum is quite complicated due to the fact that the methane molecule can rotate in a variety of rotational quantum states. These rotational states are furthermore split by anharmonic forces such as the Coriolis force.4 When methane is present in air at atmospheric pressure, much of the very fine structure due to the anharmonic force is washed out since the pressure broadening is of the same magnitude as the splitting due to anharmonicity. For most of the spectrum at 3.3 µ, the rotational lines are typically separated by 0.01µ while the individual linewidth is 0.0001 µ. It is thus very important that the laser emit at a wavelength that coincides with one of these rotational lines. Before elaborating on the point that such a laser exists and how it performs, it is necessary for later discussion to point out that in the

Jan 1, 1967

By M. J. Senk, A. Lusin

Federal regulations require that methane liberated at the face be diluted and removed to maintain methane gas concentrations below 1 pct (CFR) in working places and intake air courses. The delivery and distribution of intake air at the face is critical for effective face ventilation. Improved techniques for monitoring the movement of intake air to the face are needed. A test system was developed and a computer program written for using a three-axis ultrasonic anemometer to measure airflow in a simulated mine entry. Results of tests conducted in the entry showed that the anemometer is a valuable tool for measuring mine airflow conditions near the face.

By T. A. Klinefelter

KYANITE and the related minerals sillimanite, andalusite, dumortierite, and topaz are natural aluminum silicates that can be used in production of mullite (3A1203?2Si02), a superduty refractory material. Kyanite and sillimanite are the dominant ones because of their greater abundance. The only other kyanite-group mineral presently used for mullite production is andalusite. Mullite is not an absolutely essential material as other refractories can be used in the same heat range. However, it is a highly satisfactory one. It is the only compound of silica and alumina that is stable at high temperatures. It has low thermal expansion and is very resistant to corrosive melts and to thermal shock. For these reasons mullite refractories have a much longer life than standard fire-clay refractories under the same conditions. Worldwide, excluding U.S.S.R., the refractories industry consumes about 150-000 short tons annually of kyanite group minerals and synthetic mullite.

Jan 1, 1961

As we look back through the Proceedings of our Institute, we find few papers dealing directly with education and recruitment. Apart from papers prepared in the earlier decades of this century, there was little written discussion on the subject until the 1950s, and mostly this was by the professionals, the professors and lecturers who staff the various mining schools of Australia and New Zealand.I use the term "mining school" in its fullest and widest meaning, to cover all aspects from ore to metal, and not in the narrow meaning that the word might imply. At the same time, in restricting the parameters of this address to "ore to metal" I recognize that I am excluding the very important fields of physical metallurgy and materials science; this I do because there is a limit to the quantum of any paper, and in fact these subjects are more closely allied to the use rather than the production of metals.However, the lack of education papers does not mean that education has been regarded lightly by The Institute. Sir Maurice Mawby in his presidential address in 1968, reminded us of the original objectives of The Institute, one 'of which was, "To promote the arts and sciences connected with the economical production of the useful minerals and metals ...". Our present Royal Charter is more specific when it says that one of the objects of The Institute is, ". . . to encourage the study of engineering with special reference to mining and metallurgy ...". If we recognize that in itself membership of our Institute is one means of continuing our education, it is true that education has been a concern of The Institute since it was first founded.Occasionally in recent years, an intrepid president has ventured to tell the academics what the industry needs, and he generally does this in a "no-question" situation! However it is encouraging that those entrusted with mineral education have always accepted this; they keep coming back for more and ask us to tell them what we want, and they will provide it.In 1948 a considerable dialogue on education was initiated when a standing committee was established by the Council of The Institute. In the period 1949 to 1951, three papers were prepared under the chair...

Jan 1, 1974

Bioleaching of Weathered Saprolite - Heavy Metal Adaptation Mechanisms of Aspergillus foetidus Nickel laterite ores remain important to the future supply of Ni and Co as they contain the bulk of known nickel and cobalt reserves (80 per cent and 90 - 95 per cent respectively). Current commercial extractions of Ni and Co from nickel laterite ores are energy intensive and operational costs are high. Microbial leaching of oxide ores has the potential to offer a much needed step-change in the technology for processing laterite ores. Biological leaching of low-grade nickel laterite is based on a non-traditional leaching of oxide minerals using heterotrophic micro-organisms. The organisms solubilise metals by excreting organic acids; these acids then form complexes with heavy metals. Optimisation of the process in in-situ application, however, has been hampered by the toxicity of the heavy metals that are being leached by the organisms. Our recent study has shown that organisms are able to develop tolerance towards heavy metals by adaptation. This study examined the extracellular metal detoxification mechanisms of A. foetidus in 0.2 per cent (wt/v) to 0.7 per cent (wt/v) of weathered saprolite ore. To support our analysis, FTIR, CHNS and microscopy were used to confirm the participation of specific functional groups in the extracellular detoxification process.

Sep 13, 2010

By F. Enslin

Heavy metals and sulphates in acid mine drainage (AMD) can beadsorbed onto bentonite clay, leaving clean water and a heavy metal loaded clay precipitate as products. Due to the toxicity of heavy metals, the clay could not be disposed of safely in the past. A method was thus required to remove the heavy metal content from the clay. Acid leaching was proposed to liberate the heavy metals from the loaded clay. Sulphuric, nitric and hydrochloric acid were considered as lixiviants. Loaded clay samples were leached over a range of pH values from 1 to 3.5 to identify an optimum leaching condition. From the results it was found that metals can berecovered from loaded bentonite clay by means of acid leaching and the optimum pH for heavy metal liberation was found to be 2.5, with uranium as an exception, being optimally leached at a pH of 3. This allows for the possibility of selective leaching. Furthermore, X-ray diffraction analyses indicated that the clay structure did not deteriorate significantly during acid leaching, suggesting that the bentonite could be reused. The treatment of AMD with bentonite clay, and subsequent acid leaching of the clay, is a sustainable solution, and current outcomes could possibly lead to industrial implementation of the process during water purifying and metal recovery from waste streams. Keywords: Acid mine drainage, bentonite, heavy metals.

Jan 1, 2010

By George L. Wilhelm

Timber support of mine openings continues to be an effective system for ground support, due to its avail¬ability, flexibility, and ease of installation. Timber support of mine openings as a primary method to support loose rock has been replaced to a large extent by rockbolting and by filling systems. How¬ever, the many designs of square-set timber and varia¬tions of crib and stull support that have been developed to suit many stope configurations have proven reliable over many years of application. Integrated in modern excavation and stoping methods, timber remains an im¬portant ground support material for today's mines. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER SYSTEMS Timber, when used as a part of the total support system, is recognized for its unique support properties. More than a cover to prevent minor falls of ground, timber systems have been carefully designed to provide adequate support with sufficient compressive qualities to achieve a safe working environment in extremely diffi¬cult ground conditions. In some cases, a timber support method is designed to yield while retaining its protec¬tive support qualities. Little or no initial investment in equipment or plant is required for incorporating timber into the mining support system. Low cost cutoff saws and portable chain saws are sufficient equipment for effective use of dimen¬sioned (sawed) or round (stull) timber support. Until recently, small sawmills of various complexity were com¬mon at mine surface plants. Sawmills at the mine sites have generally been replaced by timber vendors' mills. Suppliers have been able to use efficient cutting and lumber handling methods to reduce the cost of mine timbers. Most suppliers will package dimensioned mine timber into bundles that are suitable for handling down mine shafts and on level conveyances. The principal disadvantage of timber as a support method is higher material cost and labor cost associated with its labor-intensive installation. Furthermore, stand¬ing timber reserves of mine quality wood are in short supply in some areas, and heavy competition exists for alternative uses of the timber supplies. Vendors are reluctant to supply large cross section dimension tim¬bers relatively free of defects. Some mine operations require 4.8-m (16-ft) lengths of firm timber over 0.09 m2 (144 sq in.) in section and these are difficult to obtain in large quantities. APPLICATION OF TIMBER FOR MINE SUPPORTS Timber used in mine support has been cut from many species of trees. A firm hardwood with physical properties similar to western Douglas fir has been pre¬ferred in the US. Other harder and softer woods, how¬ever, have been used when readily available or where the specific strength or crushing quality of the wood is a desired specification of the support system design. Hard¬ wood, commonly oak, has been used where maximum crushing resistance is required. Mahogany and fir are widely used for shaft guide timber. Normally, timber is used with its core axis parallel to the long axis of the timber dimension. However, in some cases, it is placed normal to its core in a "butt" log position, so as to provide maximum resistance to abrasion of the ore passage adjacent to the cut end of the block. By selective placement of timber block¬ing, controlled resistance to ground closure can be achieved which will prevent early failure of primary sup¬port members of the timber structure. Timber is widely used in modern mining operations as a construction member for chute-lip support. These designs are tailored to each operation to conform to the dimensions of the haulage equipment being used. As a construction material, wood requires none of the spe¬cial equipment necessary for placement of concrete or steel support. Placement of these alternate support ma¬terials requires carefully dimensioned and engineered excavation for their installation. Wood can be easily sawed to fit on location. The successful use of timber in heavy ground de¬pends on the careful and accurate placement of block¬ing and bracing to achieve the controlled yielding re¬sistance needed to support the mine opening. Similarly, frequency, size, and placement of top and bottom block¬ing stulls in flat-bedded deposits are carefully determined to provide adequate support at the mining face. Con¬trolled caving through failure of the stulls may be required as the scope retreats from the earlier mined-out sections. The support program must achieve both of these dimensionless qualities by specification of stull frequency and size. The utility of the square set-system of ground sup¬port and timber support is described in Chap. 2, re¬printed from US Bureau of Mines Information Circular 6691. Four examples of effective use of timber for support of stoping and other mine openings are pre¬sented in other chapters in this section. The Gilman mine's use of Mitchell slice stoping described in Chap. 3 is an early modification of the square-set mining system. This application proved reli¬able for heavy ground and overcame some of the dis¬advantages of conventional square-set timber. Chap. 4 describes the Burgin mine's use of timber with other reinforcement material. This combination of materials achieved high strength and control with yielding com¬ponent members necessary for heavy, squeezing ground. Chap. 5 describes the Bunker Hill mine's use of square¬set timber in a new configuration that provides an effi¬cient and safe support for stoping using small load¬haul-dump (LHD) mobile equipment. Chap. 6 describes some considerations in placing the widely used stull in bedded ore deposits. Finally, in Chap. 7, cost calcula¬tions for

Jan 1, 1982

By Wojciech Klecan

Cobb County, located on the northwest side of Atlanta, GA, is continually growing and, like many other metropolitan areas, it needs to increase the capacity of its waste water system to meet future demand. The Cobb County Water System (CCWS) is the responsible agency for water distribution, waste water collection and treatment in most areas of the county. CCWS, one of the most progressive agencies in the metro-Atlanta area, is addressing its future waste water capacity needs in the southern part of the county with the construction of the South Cobb Tunnel and Pump Station. This project consists of an 8.8-km- (5.5-mile-) long, 8.2-m- (27-ft-) diameter, tunnel boring machine (TBM) excavated waste water storage and conveyance tunnel; six tangential vortex-flow intakes ranging from 1,533 to 5,700 L/s (35 to 130 mgd) peak flow capacity, two construction shafts, six 1.8-m (6-ft) finished diameter connecting tunnels ranging in length from 6 to 975 m (20 to 3,200 ft) and a 5,700-L/s (130-mgd) wet/dry pit pump station. The pump station will have a semi-circular wet well with a dividing wall that extends almost to the top of the shaft and a spilt dry well for reliable operation. Roller gates will control the flow to the wet well from the tunnel. The pump station will have six 1,420 L/s (32.5 mgd) pumps and two sets of stair wells and elevators. With a finished diameter of 32 m (104 ft) and a depth of 62 m (204 ft), this is the largest pump station shaft constructed so far in Georgia for the dewatering of a waste water tunnel. The pump station shaft was also the highlight of the well attended and successful 2009 Shaft Design and Construction Short Course held in Atlanta, Sept. 10-11. The two-day course was sponsored by the Underground Construction Association of SME and Pennsylvania State University and concluded with a field trip to the pump station shaft. The tunnel starts south of the city of Austell and finishes at the South Cobb Water Reclamation Facility (WRF), located on the banks of the [ ] Chattahoochee River just north of Interstate 20 (Fig. 1). The South Cobb Tunnel will run 30 to 137 m (100 to 450 ft) below the surface, with an average depth of about 91 m (300 ft), through metamorphic rocks (Fig 2). The construction contract was awarded to Shea-Traylor JV with the lowest bid price of $305 million and notice-to-proceed was given on July 14, 2008. Jordan Jones & Goulding, Inc. (JJG) is the project designer and performed the geotechnical investigations. Parsons/Jacobs Associates is the construction manager. The South Cobb Tunnel is CCWS?s second deep hard rock tunnel. The 15.3-km- (9.5-mile-) long, 5.5-m- (18-ft-) diameter TBM excavated the Chattahoochee Tunnel was the first deep tunnel to be construced in Cobb County. Construction began in 2000 and the project was completed four years later. It is located about 16 km (10 miles) northeast of the South Cobb Tunnel in similar geology. It was designed by JJG to meet east Cobb?s long-term waste water capacity needs and provide flow equalization to the R.L. Sutton WRF. The Chattahoochee Tunnel was named ?Outstanding Civil Engineering Project of the Year? by the Georgia Sec-tion of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2006.

Jan 1, 2009

By Wesley A. Grosh

The Cuyuna range in central Minnesota has been the source of substantial tonnages of, manganiferous iron ores for almost four decades. To Increase the Nation's self-sufficiency in manganese reserves, the Bureau of Mines initiated a comprehensive investigative program to determine and develop the potential manganese reserves in the region. In the course of compiling all available information on the Cuyuna range, the Scallop-Todd lease appeared to be an area having favorable possibilities for developing substantial reserves of manganese. Early drilling on this lease indicated considerable tonnages of material relatively high in manganese. More recent drilling substantiated the size of the deposit but Indicated lower manganese values. However, beneficiation tests of samples obtained from the recent drilling indicated that the material was amenable to concentration.

Jan 1, 1953

By Larry A. Lien

"A brief summary of the different membrane separation options currently available to the mining industry will be presented and discussed. The processes described involve operating membrane plants on the following applications: pregnant leach solutions (PLS) in the copper and gold industries, fractionation and concentration of metals and acids in refineries, and wastewater treatments to meet state-of-the-art surface discharge criteria.Included is a specific discussion on cost savings resulting from an operating membrane treatment system of nearly 3,500 m3/hr barren water relative to the prior, conventional precipitation practice at a major heap leach gold mine. This Engineered Membrane Separation® (EMS®) plant has produced water for six years that has met all standards for direct discharge into the environment, and captures and returns to the operation valuable minerals and solvents which were not previously being extracted in the Merrill-Crowe process.INTRODUCTIONMembrane technology has been available for more than 35 years, but has been used sparingly in the mining industry. However, recent developments in polymer chemistry, spiral-wound element design and construction, water clarification pretreatment equipment and techniques, and an expanded understanding of membrane fouling and cleaning techniques have dramatically improved the reliability and robustness of membrane-based systems for potential use by the mining industry.In the past 15 years large operating plants have successfully demonstrated the use of this “new” membrane technology to include the separation of pay-metals from large-volume acid and cyanide heap leach mining solutions containing copper, zinc, gold and silver. Moreover, variations on these same membrane technologies are ideally suited to fractionations that add value to processing fluids from refineries, like separating metals from acids or concentrating acids and producing high-quality process fluids."

Jan 1, 2010

By John Gross

From the time when man first pounded one rock upon another or used heat and sudden chilling with water to disintegrate rock, the art of crushing advanced but slowly to the mule-driven arrastre and the Chilean mill stage until the advent of power-driven appliances made material progress possible. The combined efforts of manufacturers and operators have made modern machines highly efficient mechanically. Although marked progress has been made along mechanical lines, the theory and conception of underlying principles have not advanced so rapidly. This lack of advance in theory may be attributed to the unfortunate situation resulting from the controversy as to whether the Rittinger or the Kick law is applicable to crushing. Many pages of the technical literature are burdened with theoretical discussions in favor of one or the other of these laws, which have tended to cloud rather than to clear the atmosphere.

Jan 1, 1938

By Darrell L. Beddard

The Loma Prieta earthquake occurred on October 17, 1989 at 5:04 PM, Pacific Daylight Time. It measured 7.1 in magnitude and was felt from Los Angeles north to the Oregon state line and east to western Nevada. The epicenter of the earthquake was located along the San Andreas Fault, in the Southern Santa Cruz Mountains just north of the City of Watsonville, California. It was the largest earthquake to occur in the San Francisco Bay area since the 1906 earthquake. A total of 87 aftershocks of Magnitude 3.0 or larger were recorded within 21 days after the seismic event. As a result of this earthquake thirteen State-owned and five locally-owned bridges were closed to traffic. Three of the most publicized State-owned structures closed to traffic were Struve Slough Bridge, San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge and Cypress Street Viaduct. Struve Slough Bridge was twin slab bridges that collapsed and were rebuilt and open to traffic three months after the earthquake. San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge experienced collapse of upper and lower spans at Pier 9 and was reopened to traffic one month after the earthquake. The Cypress Street Viaduct experienced collapse of 48 bents that resulted in the upper roadway falling onto the lower roadway.

Jan 1, 1995

global mining boom and in-creased demand for iron ore has lead to a resurgence in the mining industry in Minnesota. At the combined 81st Annual Minnesota Section of SME Meeting and 69th Annual University of Minnesota Mining Symposium, April 15-16 in Duluth, MN, this resurgence was the hot topic as new mining projects were featured in the keynote session. The meeting attracted more than 400 mining industry professionals, including engineers, executives, mining managers and suppliers from around the world. This year?s theme was ?New Ventures in Mining.? The meeting included concurrent technical papers sessions, a keynote session that featured three distinguished speakers and a panel discussion that provided updates on new mining developments in the state. The Minnesota Section of SME technical papers were presented in concurrent sessions, one on mining and one on mineral processing. The mining session included papers on drilling, ore blending, slope stabilization, dust control and operations management. The mineral processing session included papers on plant-control technology, ball mills, pellet strength and fans. Also offered was an SME short course titled ?Simulation based pellet induration optimization.? The Minnesota Section of SME held its annual business meeting during the conference. The 69th Annual University of Minnesota Mining Symposium technical sessions were held on April 15 and also consisted of concurrent sessions on mining and mineral processing. Mining session topics included logistics management, real-time performance measurement, uses for taconite aggregate and environmental issues. The mineral processing session included papers on ore liberation characteristics, zeta potential studies, induration modeling, fuel optimization and conveyor belts. The combined conference included a tradeshow with more than 80 booth spaces featuring vendors offering products and services to Minnesota?s booming mining industry. More than 900 people, including conference registrants and special invited guests of the vendors, at-tended the tradeshow opening reception. This was the largest trade show in many years ? an indication of the vitality of the mining industry in Minnesota.

Jan 1, 2008

By Jewel Andrew Gomes

Arsenic is considered as one of the toxic materials being controlled by Environmental Protection Agencies in several developed and developing countries. It is found in the nature as constituents of the soil, minerals and also in various organic forms. It enters the air, water, and land from wind-blown dust and gets into water from runoff, leaching, soil erosion and anthropogenically from chemicals used for wood preservation, insecticides, medicine, military purpose, pigments, and electronic circuitries. There are several techniques available for removal of Arsenic, such as coagulation/filtration, lime softening, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, wet chemical, and electrochemical. Electrocoagulation has been found as one of the most efficient techniques to remove inorganic arsenic with more than 99% efficiency. In this paper, we present our work on electrochemical treatment of both the inorganic and organic arsenic from water using various sacrificial electrode materials, i.e., iron, aluminum, copper, and combination of them. The floc produced by this method has been also characterized using XRD, SEM/EDS, FTIR, and cyclic voltammetry.

Jan 1, 2010