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By T. W. Johnson

One of the common methods of increasing recovery of oil from partly depleted oil sands is to inject natural gas, air, or air-gas mixtures into the sand, thereby supplying energy to move oil into the well bore. Where natural gas is not available, air or an air-gas mixture is used as the repressuring medium. Air-gas mixtures are obtained from the casing-heads of oil-producing wells in the areas repressured with air or air-gas mixtures and consist usually of varying amounts of the hydrocarbon gases, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Laboratory experiments have been conducted by the Bureau of Mines to determine the effect of air on crude oils.4/ In these experiments the crude oils were oxidized by the air, and the degree of oxidation depended not only upon the chemical composition of the crude oil but also upon the duration and method of contact between the oil and air, the temperature of the fluids and the concentration of the oxygen. When the crude oils were oxidized the following results and changes in the oils were obtained:

Jan 1, 1937

By J. W. Thompson

OIL AND GAS AS MINERALS. Oil and gas within the ground are minerals and the fact that they have attributes not common to other minerals because of their fugitive nature or vagrant habit, and the disposition to percolate, and the possibility of their escape from beneath one part of the surface to another, does not remove them from the class of minerals. Texas Co. v. Daugherty (Texas), 176 Southwestern, 717, p. 719, May, 1915. OWNERSHIP OF TAILINGS-ABANDONMENT. A corporation engaged in milling- and the reduction of ores deposited the tailings therefrom upon a portion of its own land lying in a gulch through which water flows at times in great volumes and with great force' and notwithstanding all reasonable efforts by dams and otherwise to retain its tailings, the tailings eventually were forced upon the lands of an adjoining owner; these tailings were valuable and their retreatment, intended by the mill owner, profitable; and the fact that the tailings were so washed down upon the lands of the adjoining owner and permitted to accumulate and remain for some considerable time is not sufficient to show an abandonment on the part of the owner of the tailings, where it is clear that the owner had no intention of so doing, but on the contrary, always intended to conserve and retreat the tailings.

Jan 1, 1916

By d&apos, Dennis V. Andrea

The Bureau of Mines and El Paso Mining and Milling Co. conducted a cooperative in situ leaching research program at the Emerald Isle mine near Kingman, Ariz. The objective of this research was to develop in situ leaching methods for 200,000 tons of ore exposed in the pit bottom and also 3,000,000 tons of ore under 200 feet of overburden adjacent to the pit. The research included core drilling for fragmentation analysis, inplace permeability testing, seismic surveys, blasting tests, blast vibration measurements, inplace leaching, and ground water monitoring. A l5,000-ton test area in the pit bottom was blasted and leached inplace for 117 days. This successful test was followed by leaching 100,000 additional tons of unblasted pit bottom ore. Two test blasts, under 205 feet of overburden and extending to 290 feet, were detonated in an area near the open pit. The second blast was detonated because the first blast did not create adequate permeability for leaching. Pit bottom leaching was discontinued and the test area under 200 feet of overburden was not leached because the company terminated operations at the Emerald Isle mine. Based on the research completed, an expanded in situ leaching system was designed, but not implemented, to recover copper from a 1,500,000-ton area at the Emerald Isle mine.

Jan 1, 1977

By J. D. Noll

Elemental carbon (EC) is used as a surrogate for regulating the exposure to diesel particulate matter (DPM) of underground metal/non-metal miners. EC was chosen as a surrogate because EC is selective to DPM and is a major component of DPM. Using EC as a surrogate also gives one the advantages of no sampling artifacts and being able to sample at all locations in the mine. Currently, EC represents DPM well in underground mines. Some control technologies have been shown to possibly alter the relationship between DPM and EC and characteristics of DPM. Therefore, future work will investigate the relationship between DPM and EC as new control technologies are implemented.

Jan 1, 2002

By Harold M. Smith

Natural gas has been used as a fuel and source of energy almost from its discovery, but its use as a chemical raw material may be said to have begun in 1918, when Brooks and Humphrey3/ showed. presence of alcohols in the diluted acid oil obtained by the sulfuric acid-treatment of cracked petroleum distillates. However, development of the utilization of natural gas for chemical syntheses was slow, partly because erroneous ideas existed regarding the nonreactivity of tine hydrocarbons composing natural gas. Data accumulated by petroleum chemists throughout the world, particularly since about 1930, have shown that these hydrocarbons will react when activated by the effects of heat, pressure, chemical reagents, and light; also that the reactions can be made to proceed of practicable speeds and to provide good yields of useful products with moderate operating conditions, especially if catalysts are employed. As those results became known, the possibility of a synthetic organic chemical industry based upon these reactions became apparent, and today this industry is large and growing rapidly in importance. In this paper the story of the manufacture of chemical products from natural gas is told simply in graphic form. The industry is developing so rapidly that soma products may have been omitted, but every effort has been made to include all that are important or likely to become so. The difficulty of keeping information of this tape up to date is shown by reference to an information circular4/ or, the sore subject published by the Bureau of Mines in 1930, in which the important products are shown on a single chart, where as five charts are employed for the cane purpose at present.

Jan 1, 1940

By Leland A. Yerkes

Refining aluminum from crude aluminum alloys by the subhalide reaction was investigated to develop a method of producing aluminum by means other than electrolysis of its oxide. The best materials and design for the apparatus and also optimum operating conditions, including temperature, pressure, vapor flow rate, and composition of alloy charge were studied. In the subhalide process, aluminum-trihalide vapor reacts with aluminum in the alloy under high temperature and low pressure, forming volatile aluminum monohalide which reverts to aluminum metal and aluminum trihalide on cooling. The only halide used in this investigation was aluminum trichloride. The crude aluminum-silicon alloys used as the principal raw material contained from 21.9 to 36 percent aluminum, and significant quantities of iron and titanium. These alloys were produced by direct electric smelting of clays. Graphite tubing that was heated by an induction coil proved to be satisfactory material for the laboratory reactor chamber, Enclosed in an insulated glass or quartz pipe, the reactor was used in both vertical and horizontal positions with various baffle and tray arrangements for directing the trihalide vapor both over and through the alloy. Aluminum trichloride vapor was generated in the sublimer at one end of the glass pipe, passed into the reactor where contact was made with the crude alloy, and aluminum monochloride gas was formed. When the gaseous mixture of aluminum monochloride and unreacted tri-chloride passed out of the reactor and entered the condenser, the gases were cooled to 900° C. or less, causing the monochloride to disproportionate into aluminum and aluminum trichloride vapor. The aluminum was deposited on the condenser walls while the aluminum trichloride vapor was carried out of the condenser and into the opposite end of the glass pipe where it solidified on the cooled copper coils.

Jan 1, 1961

By John Kosek

The electrochemistry of carbon monoxide, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide was investigated at a variety of electrode materials in different supporting electrolytes. A portable detector for carbon monoxide was developed using a porous gold anode in perchloric acid supporting electrolyte. This detector has two full scale ranges, 0-100 ppm and 0-500 ppm. A portable detector for mixtures of nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide was developed using a porous silver cathode in sulfuric acid supporting electrolyte. Nitrogen dioxide was determined in the gas stream by electroreduction. The nitric oxide in the gas stream was oxidized to nitrogen dioxide by passing it over Cr(VI) on firebrick. Electroreduction gave the sum of NO + N02. Analog circuitry was used to display the amounts of NO and N02 separately. Two ranges were available for each gas. They were 0-10 and 0-50 ppm for NO and 0-2 and 0-10 ppm for N02.

Jan 1, 1979

By Robert E. Wallhagen

The froth foam seal topping system is part of a system for remote sealing of mine passages using flyash transported pnuematically from the surface. Making the final 5 percent of the seal with a foamed-in-place fire retardant polyurethane reduces the required flyash volume by 50 percent and provides a more reliable seal. Foam components are held at the surface under proper conditions of temperature and pressure; then conveyed down the borehole through individual hoses and mixed at the bottom with a static mixer. The polyol component is pre-mixed with fluorocarbon-12 which, when released from system pressure in the mixer, boils and causes the foam to expand. Difficulties in handling this particular foam formulation are offset by a flame spread index well below the 25 level by ASTM E-162 normally required for under-ground applications. Isocyanate, polyol (TDI) and catalyst are conveyed to the downhole package by three separate lines. Five additional lines operate the valving and convey solvent so that the mixer and package lines can be flushed immediately after foaming. The eight-hose bundle is provided in segments of several lengths so that bore-hole depths can be matched. Cast-in-place plastic cylinders hold the bundle together and transfer the weight of the hose through a special quick-release clamp to the crane's wire rope. The downhole package and hose bundle are deployed using a specially designed winch and crane system capable of borehole deployment to 1500 feet.

Jan 1, 1977

By William W. Adams

The stone-quarrying and related industries of the United States made large gains in employment in 1936 over 1935, according to reports furnished by operating companies to the Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior. Not only were more men employed, but also increases were made in the number of man-days of labor performed and in the number of man-hours worked in 1936. The increase in employment, however, was accompanied by an increase in the number of accidental deaths and injuries among the workers and by a slight increase in the accident-frequency rate per million man-hours worked. The fact that the larger number of accidents resulted in only a slight increase in the accident rate is explained by the large gain made in the number of man-hours worked during 1936. The accident rate in 1936, although higher than in 1935, was the lowest and therefore the best that the industry has experienced in any previous year except 1932 since complete and comparable figures first became available in 1916, a period of 21 years. Operators' reports to the Bureau of Mines showed that the industry as a whole employed an average of 80,022 men in 1936 and that the men worked a total of 18,874,254 man-days or 147,064,448 man-hours. Accidents in and about the plants caused 91 deaths and 5,717 nonfatal lost-time injuries among the workers. The number of injuries and deaths represented an accident-frequency rate of 39.5 per million man-hours worked, compared with a rate of 38.2 in 1935.

Jan 1, 1938

By Juh W. Chen

A process for recovery of energy from waste coal fines was investigated. The process, which was developed through laboratory, bench, and pilot plant scale experiments, consists of mechanical cleaning followed by high temperature oil agglomeration and pelletization. The process can produce a quality product under an economically and environmentally acceptable condition. Waste coal fines with ash less than 35: and HHV greater than 6,000 BTU/1b have been upgraded to a product with less than 15% ash and HHV Greater than 11,500 BTU/lb. A computer model has been developed to optimize the processing costs and to perform economic evaluation of specific sites. Ultimately tine model can be utilized to establish a priority listing for a region in assisting the determination of reclamation strategy.

Jan 1, 1983

By Anthony T. Xannacchione, Luis E. Vallejo

At present, there is little knowledge concerning the shear strength of clays containing floating rock particles with concentrations from 0 to 30%. In practice, the effect of rock particles is typically disregarded in shear strength analysis The two primary reasons for this are: 1) a lack of agreement concerning the influence of rock particles on material strength, and 2) the expense and difficulty of testing day-rack mixtures with existing laboratory procedures. These factors have impeded the development of successful slope remediation design techniques far colluviums derived from resistant sedimentary rocks or spoil produced from surface mining. This study reviewed 3 1 technical papers which contain analysis of shear strengths for clay and sands with varying mixtures of rock particles. These technical papers, published over the last 40 years, are comprised of field case studies, laboratory evaluations, and theoretical analysis. Evaluation of this body of knowledge ha shown that the shear strength gradually increases with increasing percentages of floating particles in unsaturated clays.

By Forrest T. Moyer

In 1969, the number of fatal injuries in the coal mining industry was lower than in any previous year and the number of nonfatal injuries was lower than in any preceding year except 1968. Fatal injuries in 1969 totaled 203 with frequency rates of 0.85 per million man-hours of worktime and 0.36 per million tons of coal These rates were new annual lows. Nonfatal injuries totaled 9,917 with frequency rates of 41.76 per million man-hours and 17.42 per million tons. The severity rate for fatal and nonfatal injuries combined was 7,359 days lost or charged per million man-hours. The average severity was 173 days lost or charged per injury. These statistics represent the injury experience of an average of 133,302 employees per day working an average of 225 days in 5,955 coal mines for a total of 237-5 million man-hours worked and a coal output of 565 2 million tons

Jan 1, 1973

By Bruce McDonald

This report contains the Phase I findings of a study to select and test devices for preventing lack of alertness in haulage truck drivers. The extent of the problem was determined by visiting surface metal and nonmetal mines, interviewing drivers and safety personnel and reviewing accident reports. A number of devices for detecting a lack of alertness were considered and three were recommended for testing in actual operation.

Jan 1, 1977

By James J. Snodgrass

A new technique was used to obtain detailed sonic logging data in drill holes above the water table at a coal mine site in northeastern New Mexico. The equipment was developed under contract to the Bureau of Mines and the U.S. Department of Energy to indirectly evaluate the in situ structural properties of coal and overburden. The system comprises a hydraulically operated, wall-clamping downhole probe compatible with standard four-conductor logging cable, and a surface control module. Resolution of layering is 0.6 meter (2.0 ft), and a redundancy of data from separate receivers provides accurate timing measurements. Preliminary results in the settled overburden of an excavated long-wall panel indicated a low average velocity zone, extending approximately 18 meters (60 ft) into the immediate roof of the coal seam. Subsequent measurements improved the field and recording procedures to produce high quality waveforms from which both P and S arrivals may be visually interpreted. Over a representative section of interbedded sandstone, siltstone, shale, and coal, Vp and Vs varied considerably even within lithologic units. Compressional wave velocity in the coal seam, Vp = 1,740 m/sec (5,700 ft/sec), was in the range of variability of published data.

Jan 1, 1982

By Jane Applegate

This report documents efforts to design, develop and test a training approach which would assist front-end loader operators in the acquisition of skills and awareness to reduce the probability of their involvement in accidents in the mining environment. The goal of this project was to prepare and use (on a trial basis) a training method and materials which would be generally applicable to any loader and surface mining operation while at the same time, be adjustable by mine personnel to meet the specific needs of each mining operation. This effort resulted in the Front-End Loader Training System, a structured, performance-based training approach with diverse instructional aids and classroom and on-machine training experiences. Validation of the System at a large western mine demonstrated the utility and flexibility of the training approach and materials.

Jan 1, 1983

By Edward L. McHugh

In 1984, at the request of the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Bureau of Mines studied an 84,165-acre portion of the 84,935-acre Clover Mountains Wilderness Study Area (NV-050-139) in order to evaluates its identified mineral resources. The area studied is in Lincoln County, NV, about 90 miles north of Las Vegas, NV. No mineral resources were identified in the study area. Volcanic rocks are the most common in the study area, consisting mainly of a thick sequence of ignimbrites in a cauldron complex. Cambrian to Triassic marine sedimentary rocks and Cretaceous to Oligocene clastic rocks are along and partly inside the west and south sides of the study area. No mineral production ha s come from the study area, but gold, silver, copper, and fluorspar have been mined nearby. Eleven mines and prospects in or adjacent to the study area were examined. Workings inside the study area include two shafts, 10 and 60 ft deep, and eleven shallow prospect pits at four sites along the west edge.

Jan 1, 1987

By H. E. Heide

The serious shortage of domestically produced asbestos during the war prompted the Bureau of Mines to investigate reported asbestos deposits in Alaska. The most promising' appeared to be these in the Cosmos Hills and Jade Hills areas along the Kobuk River in northwestern Alaska. The deposits along the west side of Shungnak River, a tributary of the Kobuk River, were the first to be investigated by the Bureau, in the summer of 1944. Four bulldozer trenches were excavated, from Which a 2-ton sample was taken. This sample was shipped to Rolla, Mo., for testing in the Bureau of Mines laboratory. In the summer of 1945 an investigation of asbestos deposits on Cosmos Creek, also a tributary of the Kobuk River, was begun; the work was completed during the field season of 1946.

Jan 1, 1949

By Clayton M. Rumsey

The U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted a mineral resource survey of the Cinder Cones Wilderness Study Area (WSA) (CDCA-239), 10 miles east of Baker, CA, in 1983. The 44,299-acre WSA is underlain by Precambrian granite gneiss, Upper Cretaceous or lower Tertiary Teutonia quartz monzonite, and Quaternary basalt flows and alluvium. This mineral survey included an examination of two volcanic cinder mines, five lode prospects, two volcanic cinder prospects, and reconnaissance sampling in and near the WSA. The seven prospects are in the WSA; the two volcanic cinder mines are adjacent. No mines are in the WSA. In 1981, there were 61 placer and 3 lode mining claims in the WSA. Sample results from two prospects within the WSA contained significant gold and silver values; however, the mineralized rock is of limited extent and no resources were apparent. Alluvial samples taken throughout the WSA contained only traces of gold. Two volcanic cinder cones within the WSA contain an estimated 30 million tons of cinders. There are sufficient cinders outside the WSA to satisfy demand in the foreseeable future. Stone, sand, and gravel deposits are not resources because similar material is closer to markets. No evidence of energy minerals or geothermal resources was found.

Jan 1, 1985

By Fred D. DeVaney, C. W. Ambler

"Copper sulphate is a common flotation reagent for blende ores. Metallic iron also is present in the mill circuit, and a reaction between the iron and the salt would be in accord with well-known chemistry. The abundance of metallic iron in a flotation feed may be noted by even perfunctory examination. First of all the mine contributes metallic iron, then the coarse-crushing machines add their share, and finally the fine-grinding medium its portion. If the grinding is with cast-iron balls the amount of metallics is greater than when steel is used. Thus it is that much more metallic iron is present than would be indicated by noting the ball consumption. An estimate that the total amount of metallics is twice that supplied by the balls and liners might not be far amiss.That copper sulphate plates out on iron in an acid solution is well known, but since flotation is practiced commonly in solutions where acid has not been added this reaction has not been given sufficient thought.This problem has been the basis of a study undertaken jointly by the Mississippi Valley Station of the United States Bureau of Mines and the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy, at Rolla, Missouri. Its importance may be understood better when the tonnage of zinc ores now being treated by flotation in this country is considered. According to Gaudin4 5,536,244 tons of zinc or were treated by flotation during 1927. In these operations copper sulphate was employed as an activating agent; the amount per ton averaged 0.81 pound for straight sulphide zinc ores and 1.16 pounds for complex ores. Since such large quantities of zinc ore are treated by flotation and since metallic iron is always present, the importance of studying their reactions on each other and the effect of their reaction"

Dec 1, 1929

By R. J. Leary

A small electronic digital computer employing punched cards has been used to facilitate the solution of a variety of problems in Bureau of Mines pyrometallurgical research. In this work the computer has been found to be economical for solving both simple problems that occur repeatedly and those involving complex or iterative calculations. Each of these classes of problems and their respective solutions are described. These small computers can be used effectively by researchers when they work in consultation with a computer specialist. Close team work produces the required solutions in less time, and, oftentimes, in a more useful form. Participation in programming by researchers develops in them a skill for evaluating the suitability of problems for electronic computing.

Jan 1, 1960