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By William Everett, Jack Eloranta

United Taconite is an iron ore mine operated by Cleveland-Cliffs Inc (Cliffs) located near Eveleth, Minnesota. The mine, originally known as Eveleth Taconite Mines, was purchased in December 2003 by Cliffs (70%) and Laiwu Steel (30%). The mine site, known as the Thunderbird Mine, produces taconite ore for delivery by rail to the company’s Fairlane plant, located approximately 10 miles to the south near Forbes, Minnesota. At the plant, the crude ore is ground, concentrated and processed into pellets for steel industry customers. Total pellet production capacity is about 5.4 million long tons (Ltons) per year.

Jan 1, 2006

By Luis Huaroc, Jorge Cardenas, José Salvador

One of the current challenges in mining is managing increasingly competent rock conditions within the mine-to-plant value chain, particularly when working with marginal ore grades. This study presents a case from a Peruvian open-pit operation where the mine plan projected a significant increase in rock hardness, as measured by the Axb index (parameters derived from the JK drop weight test). In response, the Drill and Blast Technical Team made efforts to increase the powder factor by reducing drill spacing and increasing the explosive charge, employing high-energy explosives (3,090 kJ/kg). However, this adjustment presented a challenge in achieving the fragmentation required to meet the target throughput of 97,500 tons/day, resulting in a shortfall of approximately 8.7% under the base case scenario. To overcome this technical challenge, the use of locally engineered ultra high-energy explosives was proposed, offering adjustable energy levels ranging from 3,210 to 3,570 kJ/kg. This solution enhanced ore blending strategies, calibrated to specific Axb ranges. The results also suggest that microfractures generated by the energetic blasting designs contributed significantly to downstream improvements. These outcomes demonstrate the value of a fully integrated mine-to-plant strategy, aligning blasting parameters with downstream processing performance to maximize operational efficiency. This solution led to a 10% increase in process plant efficiency, a 16% reduction in specific energy consumption during primary crushing, and a 13% reduction in the SAG mill. Additionally, shovel productivity rose by 18%, and the dig rate improved by up to 35%. Keywords: fragmentation, blending, high-energy explosive, power factor, microfractures, specific energy consumption and Axb model.

Jan 26, 2026

By S S. Kahlon

India is a large and growth market for explosives and accessories, which has dramatically changed from complete import dependence to self sufficiency, and now has an exportable surplus. The largest single user is coal mining which is continuing to show a healthy growth with opencast mining becoming increasingly dominant. The explosives industry has kept pace with mining and today all the well renowned explosives technologies of the world are available in the country. While slurry explosives are popular in large diameter, NG based explosives continue to be preferrred in small diameter usage. Emulsion explosives have had a good market response. ANFO usage is limited due to local reasons. As the mine size is increasing, the demand for bulk-on-site explosives is growing. Prices of explosives and accessories are cheap compared to international levels. The user industry is mainly Government owned mines whose profitability is not satisfactory. Explosives industry is over licensed in terms of manufacturing capacity, which is likely to put pressure on the viability of some of the explosives manufacturing units. Scope exists for optimization of blasting parameters through the use of computerized blasting models. The explosives industry is faced with new challenges and opportunities.

Jan 1, 1987

By Adrian Moore, Alan Richards, Andrew Brodbeck

Structural blast vibration limits should be based on the strength of the structure, the stress induced by blasting, and a responsible factor of safety. In this paper a methodology that uses direct strain measurements to determine the stress induced by blasting is described

Feb 1, 2020

By Gungor Tuncer, Ali Kahriman

This paper presents the results of ground vibration measurements carried out in Hisarcik Boron open pit mine located on the west side of the central Anatolia near Kütahya province in Turkey. Within the scope of this study in order to predict peak particle velocity level for this site, ground vibration components were measured for 304 shots during bench blasting. In blasting operations; ANFO (blasting agent), gelatin dynamite (priming) and delay electric detonators (firing) were used as explosives. Parameters of scaled distance (charge quantity per delay and the distance between the source and the station) were recorded carefully and the ground vibration components were measured for all blast events using 2 different types vibration monitors (1 White Mini-Seis and 1 Instantel Minimate Plus Models). The absolute distances between shot points and monitor stations were determined using GPS. The equation of square root scaled distance extensively used in the literature was taken into consideration for the prediction of peak particle velocity.

Jan 1, 2006

By Paul E. Thompson

Current magazine regulations are designed to avoid injury or property damage caused by accidental detonation as well as to store explosives securely. The primary emphasis appears to be the avoidance of unintended detonation or in the event such detonation occurs, the avoidance of damage to surrounding property. Adherence to these regulations largely serves the purpose intended but has caused difficulty in magazine sitting in built up areas. To the extent that magazine siting is too heavily restricted, other more significant dangers such as storage of explosives in more dangerous and less secure places may be encouraged. In summary, the regulations have served rural magazine locations well but may need further study for urban settings.

Jan 1, 1990

By W. Birch, G. D. Rangel-Sharp, L. Bermingham

For many years, the accepted method of Measuring the Velocity of Detonation (VOD) in blast holes has been to use an electric cable of a constant resistance per metre. Thus as the wire is consumed by the explosive in the blast hole, the change in resistance is monitored and when this data is plotted against the time period of the in hole explosion, the VOD can be calculated.

Jan 1, 2011

By S. S. Bud Jenkins

I went to an underground limestone mine recently to demonstrate the use of borehole liners. The liners were for horizontal holes in a normal “V” cut tunnel round. I hadn’t been in this mine for about 40 years. What a change. Way back they used cap and fuse and lit each fuse individually with a blowtorch. The face was about 40 feet wide and 14 to 16 feet high. They used ladders to get to the upper holes. The rounds were mostly slab rounds. I never saw this happen but had heard several times that the first holes were going off before the last holes were lit. I guess if this was true the use of slab rounds was a plus for safety. As far as I know they never had an accident but it was a scary procedure. There were a lot of scary procedures in the past and thankfully things have changed.

Jan 1, 2010

By Yonghun Jong, Chungin Lee

The main purpose of this study was to apply the artificial neural network (ANN) models to determine optimal powder factors and predict peak particle velocities, based on a series of observations and input parameters. The used blasthole pattern was V-cut. The locations of blastholes and ignition patterns remained almost constant. The input parameters were 14 geological conditions (i.e., dip, dip direction, spacing, separation, and persistence of 2 discontinuity sets, tunnel orientation, rock strength, RQD, and RMR) and 4 blasting conditions (i.e., distance between blasting points and measuring points, charge weight per delay, drilling length, and blasting efficiency). Data for the ANN application in this study were recently collected in a highway tunnel under construction in Korea. The main rock type in the site was biotitic granite. An optimum ANN model was determined by training models with collected data. The trained model was used to evaluate the prediction capability of the optimum model. It was shown that the ANN model could predict the powder factor and the peak particle velocity depended upon the selected input parameters. Particularly, the ANN model predicted more accurate peak particle velocities than those obtained by the blasting vibration equation. Moreover, the more dominant factors among the input parameters could be determined by analysis of the relative strength effect.

Jan 1, 2002

By Orica Chile, Orica Brasil, Orica Brasil Victor Morais, Kinross Paracatu Leopoldo Muñoz, Kinross Paracatu Luis Marinho, Gubio Barsottini, Orica Brasil José Vergara, Lucas Steffen, Orica Brasil Washington Vilas

In drill and blast activities, it has been a challenge to sculpt walls accordingly to what has been designed in state-of-art mining design software. Obviously, the perfection of making neat and smooth walls – using aggressive sources of energy, like explosives – are time-and-money consumable and, sometimes, even unnecessary. But undoubtedly, it is vital to guarantee solid walls, safe operations environment, beyond to avoid ore losses and pit constraints caused by poor rock breakage on detonation. Kinross Gold Corporation owns the biggest Brazilian Gold Mine, located in Minas Gerais state. Morro do Ouro mine has reached over 30 years of operation, and due its mature age, the complex has developed its pits, becoming them deeper and surrounded by high walls.

Feb 6, 2023

By Daniel B. Conn, John L. Floyd

PhotoSeis™ is a blast analysis method that combines the advanced technologies of high speed motion picture photography and digital seismology. When fracturing rock with the use of explosive energy, the human eye cannot detect the details of the process due to its short duration. An extended time base is required to accurately quantify the response of the rock mass to the detonation process. This time base is provided by the use of high speed motion picture cameras. The control of ground vibrations and airblast is an important consideration when developing efficient blast designs. High vibration and airblast levels can be an indication of improper design, inaccurate detonators, or adverse geology. Since many factors can elevate airblast and ground vibration, a greater understanding of the site specific response to the blast design is needed that is beyond the scope of simple seismographic recordings. By synchronizing the photographic record provided by the high speed motion picture cameras with the airblast and vibration information from digital seismological monitoring, the Photoseis™ technique can be of great assistance in controlling airblast and vibration and optimizing the use of explosive energy for rock fragmentation.

Jan 1, 1990

By Joseph A. Meyers

NYC has always been a high-profile target for both foreign and domestic terrorists. Explosives have always been the go-to tool for terrorists to bring about serious physical injury, death, and property damage in our society. Today with the anti-police movement gaining traction in the United States and anarchists groups using homemade explosives against law enforcement and municipalities, it is the responsibility of the explosives industry to ensure that every explosive product on a blasting site is secure. We must prevent the theft of these energetic materials used on projects and sold by vendors so they are not used by these terrorists. We have learned many lessons here in NYC which began with the theft of explosives used for blasting projects in NYC to supply the IRA (Irish Republican Army) 50 years ago. The liability is too significant to take short cuts in securing energetic materials. Over the years through cooperation with all agencies and the industry we in NYC have developed certain proven protocol and procedures we would like to share with the industry. An efficient and effective security plan for the logistic movement of explosives, as well as for the blast site is imperative to keeping the good name of the industry from negative repercussions and possible additional bureaucratic oversight of an industry that is highly regulated and still recovering from the pandemic. Communication, security assessments and transparency with all stakeholders and the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) will greatly improve the overall security for the blasting project. This SOP (standard operating procedure) will allow the AHJ to become a proactive partner in the security of the blasting project. If the AHJ is not a law enforcement agency, the law enforcement agency specialty unit must be notified and included in all phases of the project. The security for a blasting project with AHJ and law enforcement input starts at the inception of the project when the memorandum of understanding (MOU) is obtained, and involves the AHJ through all steps of the approval process. This includes threat assessments on new and existing structures. SME’s (Subject Matter Experts) must be present at all stages. The blasting industry and regulators must work collaboratively to improve safety, security, and create a dialogue with law enforcement and the AHJ. Relationships are built through trust, teamwork, transparency, and communication and greatly improve the safety of our great country.

Jan 21, 2025

By Selamawit Asfaw, Mohamad Sharif

In recent years, the use of modal analysis has increased to include many different aspects of the construction industry. Computer modal analysis can be used in determining the dynamic properties of a structure by mathematical equations and knowledge of the structure’s physical properties. This technique can now be used to predict the level of vibration induced by blasting on adjacent structures. Ground vibration induced by buried explosives is a major concern for contractors when excavating near utility pipelines such as gas and water lines. The size limitations placed on easements causes the necessity of additional utility lines to be placed in close proximity to existing lines. Through the development of computer models of the pipe, stress analysis can be performed prior to blasting. Based on the calculated dynamic properties (natural frequencies and modal shapes) and the maximum allowable displacements and stress levels (which are established by the pipe manufacturer) the allowable maximum charge weight per delay can be selected for the blast. The selected maximum charge weight per delay will ensure that the resulting pipe peak particle velocity level is within 95% confidence. This means, statistically, there exists a 95% probability that the actual pipe peak particle velocity would be less than the predicted value. The pipe is then instrumented with vibration measuring sensors to ensure that vibration levels are within the allowable maximum pipe strength. In conclusion, this technique can assist the engineers and blasters, to establish the proper blast design. It allows for safe and efficient installation of additional utility lines adjacent to existing lines. This technique can also be applied to predict the structural response to blasting induced vibration for a variety of complex structures. A detailed explanation of this technique, as well as an example of application including formulas used for this technique will be provided in this paper.

Jan 1, 2000

By Braden Lusk

The problem of predicting damage in densely developed areas due to incidental or malicious explosions is one of considerable importance to local, state, and federal governmental bodies. The difficulty of making such a prediction is confounded by the urban canyon phenomenon as the shock wave intensifies or rarefies depending upon the particular arrangement of buildings. The specific method detailed herein used a Computational Fluid Dynamics solver, ANSYS AUTODYN, to operate on Geographic Information Systems data, ArcGIS, which captured the geospatial relationship between the various buildings in downtown Oklahoma City, prior to the Murrah Building bombing. The model of Oklahoma City was first developed using the building footprints and elevations provided by the ArcGIS database. Due to the sheer size of the problem, the model was then subdivided into annular zones of increasing distance from the center of the blast. Each subsection was then solved using an Euler model in a cascading fashion with the output of the preceding model forming the input of the present model. To further reduce computational time, the size of the Euler nodes was increased at each stage as the section area increased. Due to the loss of precision in capturing peak pressure values when using larger size nodes, it was necessary to perform a transformation on the results using one dimensional wedge calculations with higher precision. The Murrah Building bombing event was an excellent case study due to its available ArcGIS data and the level of documentation of damage to surrounding structures due to the blast. The results from the staged CFD calculation were then used to develop a damage potential contour map. The documented incidents of damage in the area surrounding the Murrah building were then compared to the model generated damage potential contour map. Copyright ©

Jan 1, 2010

By Jeffrey Loeb

Recent trends in blasting engineering and its related fields, at the level of professional academia, have tended to exclude detailed discussion and examination of the formative experiences of the engineering student. In particular, the extra-curricular aspects of the undergraduate program in engineering—focused, in this case, on the summer job—will be shown to contain a wealth of heretofore underappreciated knowledge in the field. In Surveying the Damage: Post Traumatic Stress and Pre-Blast Surveys, I intend to outline and examine some of the more unusual experiences afforded me by my work as a preblast surveyor in the summer of 2007. In this capacity, I was required to make a visual note of existing conditions of surrounding residential and commercial structures within 100 m (328 ft) of two separate blasting sites in central-east Ontario. In the interest of both convenience and specificity, I have attempted to organize the paper as a crossdiscipline survey of the field according to the conference’s list of suggested topics. In the paper’s first section, I will discuss the topic of Environmental Improvement and Remediation by using a case study in which not one, but two dead cats were found during the course of a routine pre-blast survey. The second section will undertake a discussion of on-site blaster gossip as an entry point into a wider discussion of Workplace Communications Management. In the paper’s final section, I will detail an early morning encounter with a 300 lb, stark-naked trailer park inhabitant as a cross-sectional analysis of the topics of Drilling in Hostile Environments, Vibration and Seismology (Sizemology?), Ethics in Blasting, Crisis Management, Risk Assessment and Public Relations. It is my hope that this paper will begin to open up a critical space for discussion of the formative experiences of engineering students during the undergraduate university program in terms of their far-reaching effects on later performance within the industry.

Jan 1, 2009

By Brendan O'Reilly, Outokumpu Zinc, Geoff J. Johnston, S Durucan

Historically vibration monitoring has dealt primarily with surface blasting or "near field" monitoring of underground blasts. The Situation at Tara Mines is different, blasting occurs up to 400m underground, with a number of blasts occurring daily and occasionally with residential properties directly above the blasting site. Tara Mines, due to both its location (1.5 km from the rural town of Navan) and stringent planning conditions have always had to monitor, carefully plan and control the levels of vibration from blasting. The statutory vibration limit at Tara allows a maximum peak particle velocity of 7.62 mm/s with no frequency limitations. Levels of vibration have been monitored continuously since mining operations began in 1972.

Jan 1, 1994

By Andrew Wetherelt

Blast vibrations are of paramount importance in a society where ever increasing development is putting more stringent requirements on their control. Increasing civil development and more complex extraction scenarios make the trade off between proficient vibration control and productivity difficult to ascertain. Historically, reduction of induced vibrations levels was achieved through a reduction of MIC’s leading to smaller but more frequent blasts in order to meet extraction targets.

Jan 1, 2007

By Krishna Nand

For assessing the safety of structures during underground explosions, ground particle velocity gives the best damage criteria, and 100 mm/see of ground particle velocity has been internationally accepted as the threshold value of safety (no damage). Results of extensive controlled underground explosion experiments conducted by the author to study the effects of ground vibrations on specially prepared concrete blocks, and also on low rise buildings and dams showed that no damage normally occurred when ground particle velocities were less than 100 mm/sec. Analysis of a large number of accelerograms from a dam site in India also indicated that no damage occurred to normal structures when integrated ground particle velocities were less than 100 mm/sec. Major damage in well built structures like a dam was noticed for ground particle velocity as high as about 350 mm/sec. These results are also generally substantiated from damage data obtained for various structures during other earthquakes, including Elcentro (1940), Taft (1952), Parkfield (1965), and San Fernando (1971). These studies, therefore, suggest that the damage criteria during underground explosions and earthquakes are similar; and 100 mm/see of ground particle velocity seems to be the general threshold value of safety (no damage) against ground vibrations.

Jan 1, 1988

By Rob Farnfield, Mark Pegden

Old Cliffe Hill quarry produces between 4 and 5 million tonnes of crushed granite per year and is located in the county of Leicestershire in the East Midlands region of England. Blasting is carried out with bulk emulsion explosives in combination with either shock-tube or electronic detonators.

Jan 1, 2010

By R Vuolio, B A. Jonsson

In the center of Helsinki - capital of Finland - extensive blasting operations were carried out during the years 1982 - 84. At the corner of the streets Mannerheimintie and Simonkatu - in the Forum block - about 125,000 cu.m. of rock were blasted to give place for a new modern shopping centre (Fig. 1). Added to this amount of rock another 10,000 cu.m. were blasted for a transport tunnel to an adjacent underground bombshelter (Fig.2) which is to be used as a parking place in peace-time. The blasting work was demanding and difficult to carry out due to old buildings surrounding the work-site as well as computers and other sensitive equipment installed in some of them.

Jan 1, 1985