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By Massimo Poggio, Gabriele Balconi, Andrea M. R. Pettinaroli, Mario Ruggiero, Riccardo Castellanza

Grouting technologies are ground treatment techniques used for modifying the behaviour of a mass of soil or rock by injecting a mixture. The sleeved port pipes (also called Tube A Manchette) are highly diffused for grouting treatment of coarse soils and fissured rocks. This paper describes a combination of jet grouting and rock grouting with MPSP (multiple packer sleeve pipe) technique that has been used to realize waterproof curtains under fluvial structures for a cascade hydro-power plant. This is composed by five mini hydro-power plants, placed along the Iskar River, in Bulgaria, and composed by a penstock followed by the power house, a spillway, and an earth dam containing the reservoir. The geology of the site is characterized by an upper alluvial deposit lying over the bedrock. In each site, similar treatments were carried out: an impervious curtain along the plant section, obtained by executing jet-grouting columns in the surficial alluvial layers and grouting the underlying fractured rock by means of port pipes. The temporary embankment, built during the works for protecting each site from the possible river floods, has been waterproofed and stabilized by reinforced jet-grouting columns. The grouting processes have been controlled and monitored by a computerized system. INTRODUCTION The Iskar river cascade hydropower plant is situated northern of Sofia, Bulgaria, and it is composed by nine plants. Actually five of them have been built and produce energy. Each plant is composed by a penstock followed by the turbine building, a spillway, and an earth dam that contains the reservoir. The Iskar rivers runs in a narrow valley characterized by diorite or diabase rocks, with an upper deposit of alluvial soil, composed mainly by gravel and sand. Each plant requires an impervious curtain under the structures and in correspondence of the earth dam: this has been obtained by means of a jet grouting treatment of the alluvial coarse soil, and a grouting treatment with cement mixtures of the underlying rock using the MPSP technology. During the construction of the structures, the site has been shielded from the river water by a temporary earth embankment that has been statically improved and waterproofed by jet grouting columns reinforced with steel tubes; this allowed to work without interruption even in case of flood of the Iskar river.

Jan 1, 2019

By Alan Christopherson

Nearshore construction projects often require installation of steel piles and specific methodologies of installing piles may adversely affect nearby species of concern. Water is an uncompressible medium which allows for easy transmission of energy through the water column. Energy transmission through water depends on the following factors for pile driving: 1) direct contact of the pile and the water; 2) the depth of the water column; 3) the size of the pile; 4) type of hammer; and 5) the energy of the hammer. Seasonal restrictions are usually the best practicable alternative for reducing habitat impacts when pile driving activities may adversely affect the species of concern. When seasonal restrictions are not practical other options need to be evaluated, including mitigation and noise attenuation devices. The broad array of mitigation options will not be discussed as part of this presentation but instead will focus on noise attenuation technologies. Dewatered cofferdams can be effective noise attenuators as they eliminate direct contact of the pile with water while driving. Also, introduction of a compressible medium, like air, near the energy source can provide sound energy attenuation. An unconfined bubble curtain is relatively inexpensive but is not effective in tidal marine projects or rivers and may have unacceptable secondary effects. Secondary effects must be evaluated as these can increase exponentially for larger projects. Secondary effects to the environment include air quality degradation from air compressor use, transportation costs for fuel and equipment, and the potential for injecting oily compressed air into the water column. The confined bubble curtain works well in nearly all environments. It usually is more expensive initially, relative to an unconfined air curtain, but there is less potential for harmful secondary effects. Generally, seasonal restrictions will be adequate to protect species of concern. However, there are conditions in which mitigation or one of the sound attenuation options should be utilized. Site specific factors, including the amount of energy being imparted into the environment, sensitivity of the species of concern, current, accessibility, length of time needed to complete the project, and the cost of the sound attenuation, should be factored into the permit evaluation.

Jan 1, 2013

By Takeo Asanuma, Sachihiko Tokunaga, Hirofumi Taguchi, Yasuhiro Ootsuka, Yosuke Tanaka

The Cement Deep Mixing Method (CDM Method) is a ground improving method that has been used for mainly offshore sites to strengthen the soft ground below the sea bottom by injecting and adequately mixing cement slurry with soft soil into the ground to form a ground-improving column. In recent years, the CDM Method has increasingly been adopted for ground- improving work as part of liquefaction countermeasures and earthquake-resistant reinforcement in the shallow waters of river mouths and inland waters. In consequence of that, a pontoon-mounted CDM Method (CDM- FLOAT Method) has been developed for shallow waters, which is equipped with a land-type mixing machine combined with system management equipment and a tide level-based control function. This CDM-FLOAT Method can be deployed at work sites where the conventional offshore-use CDM barge cannot be employed. This report describes the CDM-FLOAT Method and the scope of applications together with construction work procedures, and a representative case of use of the CDM-FLOAT Method is introduced as an example of earthquake-resistant reinforcement of the existing embankment of a canal.

Jan 1, 2015

By Alexandre Alex) J. Bredikhin

"DISCLAIMER: the statements presented herein are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of US DoD or its Components.ABSTRACTProgress on the $750M lock project on the Monongahela River was derailed by discovery of large anomalies in the 6.5-7-ft dia. drilled shafts of the new river wall foundation. The anomalies were located 45 to 50’ below the top of the wall at the critical shaft-to-wall interface, and ranged in thickness from several inches to 2-plus feet. A Specialty team, comprised of representatives from the contractor, the Government, and structural design consultants, was formed to evaluate the extent of the problem and the impact on the new lock wall. With no standard method in place, the Government took the lead to develop acceptance criteria for the repairs while the contractor took the lead to identify the repair means and methods. The Government developed a detailed Quality Control plan to capture and document all of the repair data and to approve each shaft repair in a timely manner. This paper provides an overview of the anomalies encountered and the need for repairs; discusses the details of the repair plan; and provides details on the unique quality control measures employed to verify the repairs. By developing and adhering to a detailed quality control plan, the structural integrity of all of the shafts was successfully restored.INTRODUCTIONThe new Charleroi Locks Project is currently under construction by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In the region, the Corps of Engineers is modernizing the series of locks and dams on the Monongahela River. One facet of this modernization is replacement of the existing Locks #4 (aka Charleroi Locks) located upstream of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania with new and larger capacity locks. The relative location of the project is shown on Fig. 1. The original construction of twin locks (56’x720’ & 56’x360’) and the fixed-crest dam was completed in 1932, with lock walls supported on timber pile foundations. The fixed crest dam was replaced with a gated dam in the 1960’s. The existing lock is undersized and in poor condition and thus needs to be replaced. The project requires the construction of the new river chamber adjacent to the existing land chamber which must remain operational to navigation throughout the construction. In order to accomplish this, the lock walls need to be constructed in the wet. The river wall was constructed using two construction methods referred to on the project as “cofferbox” and “non-cofferbox” construction."

Jan 1, 2017

By Bernard Hertlein, Chia K. Tan

"The move to LRFD methods for structural design by AASHTO, ACI, AISC , ASCE, and the FHWA has been a major change for the American construction industry. The deep foundations industry has arguably been placed most at risk by this situation, because of the need for, and the difficulty of providing, reliable quality assurance.LRFD is attractive for both the owner and the engineer because it promises cost reductions, but the assumption underlying LRFD is often overlooked - that the acceptable margin of safety can be rationally reduced, thus saving costs, provided that all the factors involved are closely controlled. This means that both the quality of the materials and the quality of the construction work must be closely monitored, and held to an acceptable standard.This paper describes the type of comprehensive quality management program that is needed in deep foundation construction projects based on LRFD. Case histories are used to illustrate the importance of both adequate inspection and reliable testing to a comprehensive quality management program.IntroductionOver the last thirty years, the major organizations that set standards and practice policies for the American construction industry, such as the American Association of State Highway and Transportation officials (AASHTO), the American Concrete Institute (ACI) , The American Institute for Steel Construction (AISC), the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), have embraced Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) as an alternative to, and in some cases, a complete replacement for, Allowable Stress Design (ASD). AASHTO first published a new set of LRFD-based design guidelines for bridges in 1996, with several revisions in 1997, 1998, and 1999 (AASHTO, 1996). The 1996 AASHTO Bridge Design Code was the first in the United States that required foundations to be designed using LRFD procedures. LRFD has a clear advantage over conventional ASD where variability in material strength, bias in design methodology, and degree of construction quality can be rationally accounted for to achieve an acceptable level of risk."

Jan 1, 2005

By James D. Hussin

The Florida limestone is a relatively soft rock which presents many challenges to engineers when designing deep foundations. One alternative is micropiles which have grown significantly from their early days as very small diameter, light capacity elements. Also known as minipiles, pin piles, needle piles or root piles, micropiles offer an attractive deep foundation alternative for sites with tight access, low headroom, and where difficult subsurface conditions or obstructions necessitate a small diameter, high capacity deep foundation. The ability to confirm the competence of the limestone bearing formation by drilling in a rock socket has made micropiles a growing deep foundation selection in Florida.

Jan 1, 2003

By Jim Bruce, Naresh Gurpersaud

"The West Toronto Diamond project, under construction since 2006 and due to be complete in 2015, is a rail-to-rail grade separation project in the heart of urban Toronto. Once complete, a depressed corridor over 1000 metres long will take the CN tracks beneath the CPR tracks. An interlocking steel pile wall serves to retain ground and cut off groundwater. Remedial measures, constructed using jet grouting, were required at several locations within and behind the steel piles.At mechanical interlock joints damaged or suspected of being damaged, jet grouting was used to improve native soils on the retained side of the wall to reduce permeability of the soil mass in intimate contact with the joints to 10-7 cm/s. At a number of steel piles where groundwater and soil type combined to cause basal instability inside the pipes during the interim between excavation and concreting, jet grouting was used to construct temporary bottom seals. At locations near adjacent structures where the steel pile installation process resulted in disturbed ground on the retained side of the wall, jet grouting was used to strengthen and stabilize ground.This paper outlines the details of the various jet grouting applications, the respective testing programs implemented to demonstrate in situ permeability and strength of the soil-grout matrix, and performance of the constructed system.INTRODUCTIONThe West Toronto Diamond (WTD) is a junction of several railway lines, all intersecting at the same grade (Figure 1). A major grade separation project at this site commenced in 2006 and is scheduled to be completed in 2015. The whole of the work is comprised of multiple contracts, completed and/or ongoing, by different constructors. Once completed, a depressed corridor over 1000 metres long with over 23,500 m2 (face area) of retained earth will bring the CN tracks beneath the CPR tracks and eliminate a major bottleneck at the most heavily used rail crossing in Canada."

Jan 1, 2017

By Naim Noori Samie

Lateral force rsistance of piles is analytically investigated by dividing the pile length to 3 segments. The first segment (Zone I) models the load eccentricity with respect to the soil and the pile-deck connection, using a third degree differential equation representing the shear variation along the pile. The soil is assumed to be uniform, homogeneous with an elastic-perfectly plastic behavior. The Top soil layer (Zone II) is assumed to be stressed beyond the elastic limit. A simple 4th degree differential equation represents this zone. The soil resistance is assumed to vary linearly with depth (or surcharge). The pile deformation and soil behavior determines the plastic zone length. In zone III the soil is assumed to behave elastically, hence its resistance is proportional to its deformation. A linear 4th degree differential equation is employed in this zone. The compatibility conditions are satisfied on each boundary. Maximum allowable moment and shear are investigated throughout the pile as the basic limiting criteria on lateral force capacity. In this paper the soil coefficients are taken from a proposal by ref(3), and the results are compared with the soil response as determined by the P-Y method as recommended by ref(2).

Jan 1, 1996

By Matt Sotirin

The Santa Fe train station and passenger rail platform were constructed in the downtown district of Fort Madison, Iowa, over a century ago. This landmark building and rail platform were in need of major renovations and rehabilitation in order to restore the site to a functioning railway train station. A multitude of key players from various public and private parties were involved in the design and construction of this project site. Part of the project consisted of constructing the passenger platform. The original design included helical piles to provide foundational support for the platform. Challenges occurred during construction due to the presence of an obstruction in the form of a poured concrete slab in the immediate area where the helical piles were to be installed. The contractor worked with the engineer of record and other consulting parties to value engineer the helical pile design and utilize self- drilling micropiles as a replacement to the specified helical pile system.

Oct 1, 2022

By Colin Curtis

The City of Manchester is hosting the 2002 Commonwealth Games. A world class Stadium with a 38,000 capacity was commissioned for a site located close to the City Centre. The Stadium location is in an area that was derelict and in need of regeneration and it is envisaged that the Stadium will be the spur for this. The industrial and residential history of the site has left a legacy of buried foundations together with chemically contaminated soils. This Made Ground deposit overlies Glacial Deposits which in turn overlie bedrocks of the Central Manchester Coalfield. Coal mining has taken place from at least 1761 leaving several worked seams and shafts. In order to support the stadium, 1159 conventional augured piles of 600 to 1200mm diameters were used. This paper will deal primarily with the piling operations and testing, but will also discuss the coal seam treatment with respect to piling. A substantial trial pile test programme was carried out together with 11 static load tests on contract piles. The results of the pile tests will be discussed and conclusions drawn.

Jan 1, 2002

By Brian W. Wilson

A case study is presented that describes the design and implementation of a combined blast densification and deep dynamic compaction program which was undertaken to improve the foundation soils for a proposed tailings dam raise in Ontario, Canada. Based on the results of the geotechnical investigation it was determined that the foundation of the dam would be situated on tailings of both variable thickness and density, much of which would be susceptible to liquefaction under the design earthquake for the region and type of facility. Blast densification trials were completed by the owner and the results of these made available to prospective tenderers in response to a call for a fixed price contract for the design and implementation of a densification program for approximately 800,000 m3 of foundation tailings. The variation in tailings gradation and the impacts of such on the ground improvement program are discussed, as are details of both the additional blast densification field trials completed by the contractor, and the selected blast pattern and explosive charging used for production blasting. The applicability of the various ground improvement techniques to the actual conditions encountered, and the results obtained are also discussed.

Jan 1, 2010

By Daniel Stevenson, Richard Guenther

"The preservation of historic buildings is not only essential to the understanding of our national heritage, but it is also environmentally responsible to adapt existing buildings to compatible new uses. With this perspective, the American Enterprise Institute began exploring options to expand the newly acquired Andrew Mellon Building, located at 1785 Massachusetts Ave. NW in Washington, D.C., without causing any harm to the Beaux Arts style limestone façade and its plaster interiors. The building is a National Historical Landmark, but its 72,000 sq ft (6,690 sq m) of usable floor space did not meet the needs of its new owner. The building perimeter is very near the property line, so horizontal expansion was not possible. Adding height to the building was not an option, as this would have altered the historic nature of the building exterior. The only feasible option that could provide the desired floor space was to add a new floor underneath the existing structure. By adding a level beneath the existing building, an additional 28,000 sq ft (2,601 sq m) of floor space could be produced.Berkel & Company Contractors was chosen as the deep foundation/shoring contractor tasked with ensuring that the existing structure was stable and remained undamaged during the excavation and construction of the new lower level. To accomplish this, Berkel provided a shoring system that would act as both excavation support and permanent deep foundation elements for the final structure.Preservation of the existing limestone façade and plaster interiors was critical to the success of the project, as additional foundation settlements could damage these irreplaceable building components. Project specifications, therefore, included very stringent limits for foundation settlements. The maximum allowable total settlement for all existing building walls and columns was ¼ in (6 mm) for the duration of the project."

Jan 1, 2017

By Charles G. Crans, Naresh Gurpersaud

"Toronto’s Union Station, a National Historic Site occupying an entire city block, is the busiest commuter rail transportation hub in Canada. An extensive project is being undertaken to revitalize Union Station while maintaining the historical significance of the building and minimizing disruption to commuters. A significant stage of the revitalization involves excavation indoors, to a depth of up to 5.5 m below the existing floor level to create space for a new transit concourse and a new lower-level pedestrian retail concourse. A hybrid excavation support system utilizing micropiles as soldier piles was constructed over an 18 month period between 2010 and 2011.Development and testing of connections between the micropiles, shotcrete facing, lagging, walers, and tiebacks presented significant challenges. The existing viaduct structure was constructed in the 1920’s on land reclaimed from Toronto Harbour, so there was significant (and ongoing) uncertainty with respect to buried obstructions including relic timber wharfs and abandoned steel and timber piles. Collectively all these conditions precluded the use of conventional methodology; new techniques, installed using modified equipment, and for the first time in the Greater Toronto Area, were required.Details of the existing site conditions, installation challenges, design, construction and performance of the hybrid excavation support system inside this historic structure are presented.INTRODUCTIONUnion Station in Toronto, Ontario is the busiest passenger rail facility in Canada, with 65 million passengers annually and an average of 200,000 passengers each day. Construction of the station was completed in 1920. It has been designated a National Historic Site of Canada and inducted into the North America Railway Hall of Fame in the Facility and Structure category.The Union Station Revitalization Project (USRP) was tendered in 2010 and awarded as a 6-year, $450M construction management / trade contract package. Included was a large scale grade reduction, referred to as “The Dig Down”, to create two basement levels and this required extensive excavation support constructed entirely indoors within the active station setting."

Jan 1, 2017

By K. S. Ho

With the aid of the advanced electronic devices and micro-processors, the quality control of deep foundations can be carried out by Non-Destructive Tests (NDT). Three methods are presented here: the Sonic Logging, Vibration and Stress Wave Analysis Methods. The principles, equipments used, testing procedures and applications are fully described. The correlation of these methods with the conventional tests (mechanical coring and loading test) are studied to give a better understanding of the methods. Several case histories with the test results obtained from a number of sites in Hong Kong and overseas are discussed to show how the pile quality can be examined and especially, how to confirm the effectiveness of remedial works on a defective pile. Recommendation on the percentage of piles to be tested are given at the end of the paper by using statistical method.

Jan 1, 2010

By Karsten Beekhaus, Sander W. Odijk, Rabea Bahlum, Mazin Adnan, Ayman Abdelh Al Nuaimat, Hassan Farhat

The Arab Potash Company, APC, is one of the 10 largest potash producers of the world. The solar ponds at the Dead Sea, used for the enrichment of the salt content in the brine, are of crucial importance for the first step in the exploitation of the potassium salt. Targeting at the expansion of production in the since over 50 years utilized facilities, the increase of the brine exploitation capacity, reducing the substantial brine seepage losses from the ponds, becomes a crucially required measure. In this context, the remediation measures on the over 11 km long Dyke 1, being a main dyke of the solar ponds system, became inevitable to reduce the brine losses, prevent further development of sinkholes and cavities and hence assuring the stability of the dyke. The highly aggressive environment, the acting hydraulic conditions and the sensitive stratification and nature of the existing ground represented remarkable challenges for the design, as well as its implementation by the construction activities. Royal Haskoning developed a solution addressing the challenges above and targeting at a high sustainability of the executed structure, especially in view of the various geological and hydrological hazards repeatedly occurring in this Dead Sea region, including sinkholes of several meters by diameter and depth. The construction works, consisting of a cut-off wall, with depths reaching down to 31 m, were awarded to Bauer International FZE, a subsidiary of Bauer Spezialtiefbau GmbH. Upon the execution of the first section of 4.2 km length, additional sections were subsequently commissioned, also on further dykes, totaling to about 300,000 m² of cut-off wall. The specific project conditions, such as utilization of cutter technique for the excavation in Halite rock, the stability of open trench exposed to hydrostatic pressure of salt-saturated ground water, resulted in unconventional requirements towards the supporting fluid. The extremely aggressive saline conditions –with a Dead Sea water density of 1.25 tons/m3; one of the world's saltiest water–, were further a decisive factor for the definition of the backfill material concept. Despite its clear advantage for construction of cut-off walls with installed sheet piles, the single-phase system with hardening slurries, fulfilling both functions of excavation support and cut-off wall backfill material, had to be abandoned in favor of the two-phase system, to construct a hybrid cut-off wall made of sheet piles and plastic concrete.

May 1, 2022

By Norm Kirk, Robert Bittner

"The addition of a new powerhouse at the existing Tulloch Hydroelectric site on the Stanislaus River in the western foothills of the Sierras Nevada Mountains of central California required a deep excavation in rock on the downstream face of the dam. A cofferdam (water exclusion device) was necessary to isolate the powerhouse construction site excavation from the existing Goodwin Reservoir and the turbulent discharge from the existing powerhouse. The cofferdam was positioned on a steeply sloping fractured rock surface exceeding 50 degrees.This paper describes the challenges encountered during design and construction of the cofferdam and describes the unique design features used to address these challenges including:•,The use of flat-sheet-piles to form cellular walls on the steeply sloping rock surface.•,The use of 5-ft deep tremie concrete plugs in the bottom of the sheet pocket cells to create the bottom seal of the cellular cofferdam walls against the sloping rock surface.•,The use of vertical post-tensioned rock anchors to provide shear resistance at the contact point between the base of the cellular-wall and the sloping rocksurface.INTRODUCTIONModification or expansion of existing hydroelectric power plants often require downstream cofferdams or water exclusion devices to temporarily separate new construction from turbulent downstream discharge of the existing dam. Most dams are positioned on solid rock in the narrowest and therefore the steepest section of the river. This combination of steeply slopingrock and the need for an exclusion barrier creates a challenge for the design engineer trying to maintain a safe dewatered construction site. Typical cofferdam solutions for hydroelectric dams usually use large granular filled circular sheet pile cells that perform as gravity structures. However, this type of structures is not well suited to steeply-sloping highly irregular rock surfaces in a confined area."

Jan 1, 2017

By Deep Foundation

Whenever an organization launches an initiative, the question arises whether that initiative has staying power. Or is the initiative, as is quite often the case, merely a fad; that is, just an activity that suddenly becomes popular, but which does not stay popular for very long. When the Federal Highway Adminis- tration (FWHA) started its Advanced Geotechnical Methods in Exploration (A-GAME) initiative, that question was addressed, especially considering the fact that up to 50% of major infrastruc- ture projects suffer impacts to schedule or cost due to geotechnical issues. Many of these issues relate to risks identified directly or indirectly to the scope and quality of site character- ization work. Effective site charac- terization is critical for recognizing. potential problems that may affect design and construction and for ensuring safe, well-performing and cost-effective projects. Grounded on that, knowledge of all available site investigation methods should continue to be shared widely and the application of those methods should be encouraged on an ongoing basis throughout the project lifecycle. The A-GAME initiative covers five technologies: Cone penetration testing (CPT), monitoring while drilling (MWD), electrical geophysical methods, seismic geophysical methods, and optical and acoustic televiewers. Of these, three soil and rock investigation methods were highlighted that are underutilized not only here in the U.S., but also in many places around the world: CPT: a well proven and established method for soil characterization that turned 90 last year, in which continuous in-situ data are col- lected quickly and consistently. Geophysics: the science that assesses the physical properties of the soils and rock using seismic and electrical techniques, which con- tinues to advance in leaps and bounds as the application of well- understood technologies become more powerful.

May 1, 2023

By Justin Phillips

The redevelopment of Bow Bells House in London has thrown up a number of challenges that will increasingly be faced by developers of congested sites. In the context of pile reuse this paper examines four key issues: 1. The Developer?s perspective on sustainability, cost, programme and risk management. 2. The nature of pile testing including timing, the balance of extent of intrusive works whilst retaining the existing piles and identifying representative levels of testing. Four key elements of investigation; geometry, integrity, durability and capacity are evaluated. 3. In terms of design this paper supports the adoption of alternative probabilistic methods aligned with communicating to Clients in terms of acceptable ?probability/risk of failure? in place of a factor of safety approach. 4. The project also highlights a number of issues that will require greater attention to maximise the future reuse potential such as foundation load transfer platforms and promoting developments based on early collaborative framework design and contracting across the supply chain.

Jan 1, 2008

By Antonio Zechini, Giuseppe Iorio, Massimo Grisolia

"The new C Line of the Rome Metro runs northwest to southeast across the city center, with 30 new stations and a total length of more than 15.5 mi (25 km). Due to the presence of a dense urban environment, the selected solution for the construction of the stations consists of a cutand- cover excavation, which is retained by multipropped diaphragm walls to minimize settlement and prevent damage to the nearby structures. The bottom of the excavation of the underground stations are about 82 ft to 98 ft (25 m to 30 m) below ground surface, and about 66 ft to 82 ft (20 m to 25 m) below the groundwater table. To ensure dry conditions and to prevent hydraulic base heave instability, deep well systems were designed and used to lower groundwater level and piezometric head during excavation. The dewatering field tests showed how the local stratigraphy strongly affects the dewatering efficiency. Finite element modeling (FEM) of steady state filtration were used to compare the soil permeability with Lefranc in-situ test results and to verify the efficiency of the grouted plugs. The geological sequence along the new C Line consists of a very heterogeneously layered deposit. The base deposit of stiff overconsolidated clay (“APL,” Pliocene age) is overlain by fluvio-palustrine very dense sandy gravels (“SG,” Pleistocene age), which are then overlain by medium stiff clayey silts or dense sandy silts (“AR” or “ST,” Paleotevere units). These deposits are overlain by covered by pyroclastic volcanic soils, tuff, silty sand and sandy silt (Middle to Upper Pleistocene) deriving from the Colli Albani apparatus. A layer of made ground (“R”) of varying thickness covers the stratigraphic sequence and the natural soil profile everywhere.The local hydrogeological framework is very complex and characterized by a double groundwater system. The upper main aquifer is mainly represented by the “pozzolane sequences” (“PR/PN”), while the lower aquifer consists of a deposit of sandy gravel (“SG,” Pleistocene), which is underlain by marine claystone bedrock (“APL,” Pliocene). The pyroclastic deposits (e.g., pozzolane, lithoid and pseudolithoid tuff and clayely tuff) show large variations in permeability due to porosity, compaction processes, sealing and secondary fracturing. Permeability values for each soil type were determined using Lefranc tests at variable head and using pumping tests. The Lefranc tests indicated a wide range of permeability."

Jan 1, 2017

By Oladayo O. Komolafe and Majid Ghayoomi

p-y curves have been used over the years to determine the lateral resistance of piles. This method is popular among practicing engineers due to its simplicity and its ability to determine the slope, displacement, shear force, and bending moment for various depths along the pile. The ultimate lateral load resistance is a key component of p-y curve formulation. The p-y curve formulation by Reese et al. (1974) does not consider the effects of soil’s degree of saturation on theoretical ultimate lateral resistance of the failure wedge. This limits an accurate assessment of the lateral soil resistance near the ground surface and the consequent p-y curves. This paper extends the existing approach for determining the failure wedge in unsaturated cohesionless soils with suction dependency, especially for the depths that are above the water table within the wedge. The modification to the failure wedge analysis was made by considering the variation of the degree of saturation which affects effective stress and lateral earth pressure. Through a set of parametric analyses, the impact of incorporating principles of unsaturated soil mechanics in the estimation of theoretical ultimate lateral resistance is examined, and its implications on lateral pile response are discussed.

Sep 8, 2021