Search Documents

By B. G. Tarasov

This paper proposes the further development of a recently identified shear rupture mechanism (fan mechanism) that elucidates a paradoxical feature of hard rocks ? the possibility of shear rupture propagation through a highly confined intact rock mass at shear stresses that can be significantly less than frictional strength. In the fan mechanism, failure is associated with consecutive creation of small slabs (known as ?domino blocks?) from the intact rock in the rupture tip, driven by a fan-shaped domino structure representing the rupture head. The fan head combines such unique features as extremely low shear resistance, self-sustaining stress intensification, and self-unbalancing conditions. Consequently, the failure process caused by the mechanism is inevitably spontaneous and violent. Physical and mathematical models explain unique and paradoxical features of the mechanism, which can be generated in primary ruptures and segmented faults. The fan mechanism provides a novel point of view for understanding the nature of spontaneous failure processes, including shear rupture rockbursts. The process explains, in particular, features of shear rupture rockbursts such as activation at great depths, generation of new shear ruptures in intact rock mass, nucleation of hypocentres at significant distances from the excavation, shear rupture development at low shear stresses, and abnormal rupture violence.

Jan 1, 2014

By D. Schreuder

Conditions in the South African market relating to atmospheric emission control has changed dramatically over the last 10 years. Companies have become more responsible, environmentally aware, and have to comply to more stringent environmental limits set by legislation. This paper describes briefly the current best available atmospheric pollution abatement technologies relating to particulates, acid gases, NOx, acid mists, aerosols, mercury, dioxins and furans. Mention is also made as to the best practices for product work-up and waste product disposal.

Jan 1, 2006

By B. Ndlovu

The world mineral industry has over the years experienced growth in the production of nickel (Ni) due to its use not only in the catalytic industry but mainly also to its demand in the stainless steel production industry. Hence there is a need to produce more pure and marketable grades of Ni through the use of efficient purification routes such as solvent extraction. The V10-LIX®84-IC system resulted in nickel (Ni) extraction isotherm shifting to lower pH levels. The pH window of opportunity for the extraction of Ni subsequently increased in solution containing magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) even though the system also resulted in slight shifts to less positive pH values for Mg and Ca curves. Results showed a synergistic effect of LIX®84-IC when added to V10 for all elements, Ni, Mg and Ca. The pH50 values for elements Ni, Mg and Ca in the V10-LIX®84-IC system were 2.95, 8.10 and 7.70 respectively. Comparing results obtained when using V10 alone produced ?pH50 for Ni, Mg and Ca being 3.35, 0.15 and 0.70 respectively, which was a confirmation of the synergistic shifts for all the elements. The ?pH50 (Mg-Ni)value was 1.95 with no synergism and 5.15 with synergism and that for ?pH50 (Ca-Ni)was 2.10 with no synergism and 4.75 with synergism. This showed that the Ni-Mg separation factor was relatively larger than the Ni-Ca. Improved loading and stripping kinetics were also observed. Keywords: Nickel solvent extraction separation, magnesium, calcium, versatic 10 acid and LIX®84-IC.

Jan 1, 2008

By N September, R Abate

Bateman Modular (previously Van Eck and Lurie) has been building and supplying the mining industry with modular DMS plants for the last 30 years. These DMS modules range in capacity from 1 tph to 200 tph. The most popular unit produced by Bateman Modular over the years has been the 50 tph module. Development In the last 7 years a need has arisen from the industry to provide Modular DMS plants that can treat higher tonnages (150 to 200 tph). The first DMS provided to the mining industry based on the modular concept was a 150 tph DMS Module to MIBA in the DRC. Since then Bateman Modular has provided some 14 Mega DMS modules over the last 7 years with the latest two orders from Debswana (Damtshaa double up project) and Namdeb. Ever since the first Mega Module was supplied Bateman Modular has been improving the Modules. Implementation The modules can be supplied in different configurations so as to improve the overall availability of the plant. Two off 150 tph DMS modules were supplied for a Transhex operation. This allowed the client to still operate one DMS module while maintenance is being performed on the other DMS module. The client also has the option of choosing a single module. Successes The following list of projects provides the base for the success of the Mega Modules.

Jan 1, 2006

Splashing and wave formation has been studied experimentally by using one-seventh water model of CLU (Creusot-Loire Uddeholm) reactor with two different tuyere configurations by using paraffin and water as simulated slag and simulated metal respectively. Experimental results have been discussed in terms of total splash volume, relative slag volume in splash (dispersed-slag phase holdup in splash), wave frequency and wave amplitude with respect to gas injection rate and tuyere configuration at bath heights between 0.25m and 0.38m. Gas flow rates ranged from 0.00599m3/s to 0.01312 m3/s. The results of splash measurements showed that splash volume increased with increasing gas flow rate and decreasing bath heights for both tuyere arrangements. However, off-centre configuration resulted in relatively higher amounts of splash. The slag volume in splash (Dph in splash) was also found to increase with decreasing bath heights and increasing gas injection rates. The high speed photography revealed that the frequency and wave amplitude increased with gas injection rate. The experimental results also showed that the frequency and vertical displacement of the rotating wave increased when the tuyere orientation became off-centered. This might be used to explain why off-center configuration resulted in generating higher splash volumes than the center configuration.

Jan 1, 2004

By J. D. Bosman

The problems associated with squeezing rock conditions in tunnels are well known and have been extensively investigated in the past. Although squeezing conditions are predominantly found in tunnels developed in weak rock types it has been noted at the No. 6 Shaft of Hartebeestfontein Mine where the host rock consists of hard, brittle quartzites. This paper investigates typical time-dependent deformation mechanisms in the rock at Hartebeestfontein Mine. The paper will focus on observations made in a strike-orientated tunnel that intersected weak quartzite layers, that were sandwiched between two competent quartzite beds. The observed squeezing mechanism is dominated by creep along bedding planes with a soft talcaceous infilling that behaves in a clay-like fashion when saturated in water. Stress-induced deformation processes, some distance into the sidewall of the excavation, force the already fractured periphery of the excavation into the void. A laboratory study of the creep of intact rock and discontinuities collected at this site was conducted to characterize the time-dependent behaviour. The difference in creep rates between the two types of quartzite found at this site is described in the paper. Creep tests performed on the talcaceous infilling material found that its presence allows substantial shear creep along discontinuities. Attempts were also made to simulate the squeezing mechanism observed underground with numerical techniques. Due to the discontinuous nature of the mechanism described above, a viscoplastic displacement discontinuity technique was used as it allowed for the explicit simulation of discontinuity creep. The results of the modelling and how it compared with the observed behaviour are described in the paper. Environmental impact statement The work described in this paper will not cause any new, or contribute to any existing, hazards confronting the environment.

Jan 1, 2000

By S. R. Dindarloo

Although blasting is one of the most widely used methods for rock fragmentation, it has a major disadvantage in that it causes adjacent ground vibrations. Excessive ground vibrations can cause a wide range of problems, from nearby residents complaining to ecological damage. Prediction of blast-induced ground vibration is essential for evaluating and controlling the many adverse consequences of surface blasting. Since there are several effective variables with highly nonlinear interactions, no comprehensive model of blast-induced vibrations is available. In this study, the support vector machine (SMV) algorithm was employed for prediction of the peak particle velocity (PPV) induced by blasting at a surface mine. Twelve input variables in three categories of rock mass, blast pattern, and explosives were used for prediction of the PPV at different distances from the blast face. The results of 100 experiments were used for model-building, and 20 for testing. A high coefficient of determination with low mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) was achieved, which demonstrates the suitability of the algorithm in this case. The very high accuracy of prediction and fast computation are the two major advantages of the method. Although the case study was for a large surface mining operation, the methodology is applicable to all other surface blasting projects that involve a similar procedure.

Jan 1, 2015

By S. Asokan, CVGK Murty, R. Upadhyay

The principal mineral sources of titanium are rutile, anatase (both TiO2), ilmenite (FeTiO3) and leucoxene (a weathered ilmenite of variable concentration of TiO2 but similar to pseudorutile Fe2Ti3O9). These titaniferous minerals along with their value added products like Synthetic Rutile and TiO2 slag constitute ?Titanium Feed-stocks? for TiO2 pigment, Ti metal and welding electrodes industries. Unlike in other industries, the demand driver for titanium minerals is not the metal, but the TiO2 pigment ?a specialty chemical. Of the total titanium feedstocks usage in the world, about 93 % is consumed in TiO2pigment, with only about 3 % is utilized in metal production. India?s heavy mineral sands resources are among the largest and also one of the richest grades in the world. The country?s Ilmenite resource base stands at 348 million tonnes of Ilmenite (18% of the total world reserves)along with 18 million tonnes of Rutile, 21 million tonnes of Zircon, 8 million tonnes of Monazite, 107 million tonnes of Garnet and 107 million tonnes of Sillimanite. Though the grades (Total Heavy Minerals (THM) present in the sand) of Indian deposits are relatively rich, the contained ilmenite are termed as sulphate grade with 50-53% TiO2 (Chavra deposit of Kerala and Ratangiri deposit of Maharastra are an exception with 60% of TiO2). While superior grades with adequate reserves lead to a cost advantage in ilmenite production, the lower TiO2 percentage allows the direct use of Indian ilmenite only in the production of TiO2 pigment through sulphate route and for the chloride pigment production; such ilmenite is required to be upgraded either to Synthetic Rutile (SR) or TiO2 slag. However, in order to produce TiO2 slag in India at a globally competitive cost, the issues like high power tariff, inadequate infrastructure, expensive logistics, less enthusiastic market preferences, supply-demand gaps are to be adequately addressed. This paper deals with some of the above issues and possible solutions thereto in production of TiO2 slag from Indian ilmenite.

Jan 1, 2007

By A. Bascetin

One very important aspect of mining is deciding what material in a deposit is worth mining and processing, versus what material should be considered waste. This decision is summarized by the cut-off grade policy. The cut-off grade strategy for an open pit mine influences the annual cash flows and affects the net present value of a project. The optimization of cut-off grade strategy requires the knowledge of detailed operational costs, mining sequence, mining operation, processing, and product constraints, as well as the grade distribution of a given deposit defined by pit, phase, and different material types. Cut-off grade optimization algorithms have been developed in the past. The most common criteria used in cut-off grade optimization is to maximize the net present value (NPV). This paper describes the determination of a cut-off grade strategy based on Lane?s algorithm adding an optimization factor based on the generalized reduced gradient (GRG) algorithm to maximize the project?s NPV. The introduced algorithm is a windows based program developed at Virginia Tech that is based on a series of Visual Basic routines within a spreadsheet environment (Excel).The benefits of the methodology are demonstrated using a hypothetical case study. Keywords: Cut-off grade optimization, net present value maximization, generalized reduced gradient algorithm method.

Jan 1, 2007

By V. S. S. Yadavalli, J. Hager, R. Webber-Youngman

"This article investigates the complex problem of a budgeting process for a large mining operation. Strict adherence to budget infers that financial results align with goals. In reality, the budget is not a predetermined entity but emerges as the sum of the enterprise’s operational plans. These are highly interdependent, being influenced by unforeseeable events and operational decision-making.Limitations of stochastic simulations, normally applied in the project environment but not in budgeting, are examined and a model enabling their application is proposed. A better understanding of budget failure in large mines emerges, showing that the budget should be viewed as a probability distribution rather than a single deterministic value.The strength of the model application lies with the combining of stochastic simulation, probability theory, financial budgeting, and practical scheduling to predict budget achievement, reflected as a probability distribution. The principal finding is the interpretation of the risk associated with, and constraints pertaining to, the budget.The model utilizes a four-dimensional (space and time) schedule, linking key drivers through activity-based costing to the budget. It offers a highly expressive account of deduction regarding fund application for budget achievement, emphasizing that ’it is better to be approximately right than precisely wrong’."

Jan 1, 2015

By H. Thomas, I. N. M. Nday

"*Paper written on project work carried out in partial fulfilment of BSc.Eng (Mining Engineering) degreeThe optimization of the cycle time to increase productivity at Ruashi Mining was an on-site project investigation conducted from December 2017 to January 2018. The main objective of the investigation was to determine the actual cycle time components. These comprise the queuing time, loading time, hauling time, and dumping time of ADTs (articulated dump trucks). Data was also collected on two hydraulic shovels to identify where these could be optimized. The actual cycle time obtained was compared to the theoretical cycle time to ascertain the constraints, which affect productivity. By applying Systems Thinking to the cycle time, man-made constraints of the actual cycle time were identified and recommendations to mitigate them suggested to optimize the cycle time. However, rainfall is a natural constraint that adversely affects the actual cycle time, and which cannot be mitigated.In addition, both the theoretical and actual cycle time were analysed, as well as the theoretical and actual productivity for the year 2017. Based on the findings, conclusions and recommendations were made to optimize the cycle time. IntroductionThe aim of the project was to increase Ruashi Mining’s productivity by 39%, from about 7.537 Mt of broken material mined to 12..367 Mt targeted in 2017.BackgroundRuashi Mining is a copper (main commodity), cobalt (by-product), and acid producer located in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), 10 km from the city of Lubumbashi. Figure 1 shows the location of the Ruashi Mining open pit.Ruashi Mining started production in 1911 and in 2005 the mine was registered as a DRC company owned by Metorex Group Limited. In November 2013, the Chinese company Jinchua Group International Resources Co. Ltd. bought a majority stake in the business. Ruashi Mining currently produces 38 000 t of copper and 4400 t of cobalt per annum. The company has contracted NB Mining (a contract mining company) to transport its ore. To optimize the productivity of the mine, considering ore flow delivery at Ruashi Mining, the cycle time is the indicator used in this project. The cycle time components were recorded on site using a stopwatch."

Jul 1, 2019

By A. E. Lewis

Particle morphology is a term that is used to describe the overall external shape and appearance of particulate solids. From the physical point of view, a precipitated solid is characterized primarily by the size and morphology of the particles (Sohnel andGarside, 1992). If the morphology of the crystal structures is to be related to the processing conditions, then the morphologies need to be quantified in some way. This can be achieved by using surface area measurements as well as fractal dimensions. The key idea is that rugged and indeterminate systems can be described by using a fractional number that describes the ruggedness of the system (Kaye, 1989). In other words, when the complexity of a structure, such as an agglomerate, increases with increasing magnification, it is useful to employ fractal dimensions to describe the structure. Fractal geometry proposes that, instead of attempting to measure the length of an irregular boundary, the rate at which the length of the boundary approaches infinity with increasing resolution should be calculated. Cross-sectional profiles of rugged particles can thus be quantified using the fractal dimension, and a measurement of the ruggedness of the morphology obtained. One of the additional uses of measuring the fractal dimension is that the measured value can be related to the physical properties and formation characteristics of the particle (Kaye and Trottier,1995). The morphology of nickel crystals was quantified with fractal dimension calculations of particle cross-sections. Particle cross-sections were obtained by mounting the particles in resin and polishing back. These were then photographed using Scanning Electron Microscopy and the resulting profiles analysed using the structured walk technique.

Jan 1, 2001

By M. Rafie, M. Rinne, F. Samimi Namin

"SynopsisRock mass classification systems constitute an integral part of empirical underground excavation design. One system that is commonly used to classify rock mass is the Rock Mass Rating, or RMR, system. The RMR system has evolved over time to better reflect the perceived influence of various rock mass factors on excavation stability. While the introduced modifications have enhanced the applicability of this classification system, there are still areas that cause potential ambiguity. The RMR system cannot deal with input data ambiguities, uncertainties, and vagueness. To deal with the uncertainty, a Fuzzy Rock Mass Rating (FRMR) has been developed. This study aims to describe the main concept of the fuzzy approach, which is implemented in the FRMR to classify rock mass. The FRMR considers the uncertainty associated with the input data (uncertain variables) used in rock mass classification. The Gol-e-Gohar (GEG) area 3 iron ore deposits in the south of Iran were chosen as the case study for investigating the applicability of FRMR. The results of this study show that the FRMR software tool can easily be used for rock mass classification, even if uncertain input parameters have been used. FRMR consists of three parts, each of which is suitable for certain conditions.IntroductionNowadays, rock engineering classification systems, which constitute the backbone of the empirical design approach, are widely employed in both civil engineering and mining engineering. Rock mass classifications have recently been quite popular and are being used mostly for the preliminary design and planning purposes of projects. According to Bieniawski (1989), a rock mass classification scheme is intended to classify the rock masses, provide a basis for estimating deformation and strength properties, supply quantitative data for support estimation, and present a platform for communication between the exploration, design, and construction groups."

Jan 1, 2015

By F. Agterberg

In his 1978 monograph ‘Lognormal-de Wijsian Geostatistics for Ore Evaluation’, Professor Danie Krige emphasized the scale-independence of gold and uranium determinations in the Witwatersrand goldfields. It was later established in nonlinear process theory that the original model of de Wijs used by Krige was the earliest example of a multifractal generated by a multiplicative cascade process. Its end product is an assemblage of chemical element concentration values for blocks that are both lognormally distributed and spatially correlated. Variants of de Wijsian geostatistics had already been used by Professor Georges Matheron to explain Krige’s original formula for the relationship between the block variances as well as permanence of frequency distributions for element concentration in blocks of different sizes. Further extensions of this basic approach are concerned with modelling the three-parameter lognormal distribution, the ‘sampling error’, as well as the ‘nugget effect’ and ‘range’ in variogram modelling. This paper is mainly a review of recent multifractal theory, which throws new light on the original findings by Professor Krige on self-similarity of gold and uranium patterns at different scales for blocks of ore by (a) generalizing the original model of de Wijs to account for random cuts; (b) using an accelerated dispersion model to explain the appearance of a third parameter in the lognormal distribution of Witwatersrand gold determinations; and (c) considering that Krige’s sampling error is caused by shape differences between single ore sections and reef areas.

Jan 1, 2015

By A. D. Storrie

An underground wet shotcrete trial was completed last year to determine the effectiveness of wet shotcrete as an alternative support mechanism to dry shotcrete in the kimberlite environment. The wet shotcrete was manufactured at the underground batch plants, transported to site using an agiecar and transferred to the shotcrete pump. The wet shotcrete is pumped to the nozzle where compressed air at 7 bar and an accelerator, Meyco SA 160, is added and enables the shotcrete to be placed successfully onto the tunnel wall. No tunnel guard was previously placed on the sidewall and hangingwall. Geotechnical testing indicates that the Grace fibre performed extremely well with the energy absorption tests at 7 kg/m3and 8kg/m3where both achieved over the mine requirement of 750joules. The Grace fibre and wet shotcrete mix also achieved a compressive strength in excess of 55 MPa, well above the 45 MPa requirement for Premier Mine. The recommended wet shotcrete mix design is therefore based upon: [Material/ CriteriaQuantity/m3Units ?Lafarge 42.5 Duratech500kg ?Condensed silica fume40kg ?Rayton Sand1.558Ton ?Delvocrete stabilizer 103.6litres ?Glenium 27CH5.4litres ?Meyco TCC 7355litres ?Water230litres ?Meyco SA16025litres ?Fibre8kg ?Cement/Water Ratio2.35? ?Water/Cement Ratio0.43? ?Flow615 mm] If the wet shotcrete system is implemented there is a potential for Premier Mine to make major savings. In South Africa there are two suitable wet shotcrete machines available for the mining industry, the Spreymec, manufactured by Tamrock and the Fermel/Meyco wet shotcrete machine. The Spreymec is a fully imported machine. The Fermel component is manufactured in South Africa and the Meyco shotcrete components are imported and supported by MBT (Master Builder Technologists) in South Africa. The Fermel/Meyco machine is assembled in South Africa. Premier Mine has allocated some R2, 100,000 towards the implementation of the wet shotcrete system. If implementation is successful there should be an internal rate of return gain of 76% with regard to this project.

Jan 1, 2001

By G. G. le Roux

The purpose of the investigation was to assess various options for increasing the efficiency of the conveyor belt transporting system used at 4 Belt Shaft at Lonmin?s Marikana operations. The reason for the investigation was to prevent the occurrence of a ?bottleneck? at the main ore passes delivering ore to the conveyor belt system, thus creating more fluent operational conditions. The options assessed for increasing the efficiency of the conveyor belt transporting system were: ?Variation of the conveyor speed ?Concurrent tipping from two ore passes on the belt ?Increase the available drive unit power ?Increasing the feed rate from vibratory feeders ?Change in belt width/belt specifications The report shows that the most preferable option to the current situation at 4 Belt, Lonmin, would be the option of concurrent tipping from two ore passes to the belt.

Jan 1, 2008

This paper summarizes the results from a project aimed at adapting scroll centrifuges for application to the dewatering of flotation concentrates. The main impetus for the project was to reduce the high cost and footprint size of the technology currently used to dewater fine coal. The technical challenge was to enhance solids capture by incorporating a laser-cut screen into the design of the basket. The project has shown that a pilot-scale scroll centrifuge can be used to dewater froth concentrate. A number of different basket designs were tested, the best results being achieved with a basket comprising a laser-cut screen of aperture 70 µm. The best result on a sample of untreated flotation concentrate, which was taken from the open trough flotation cells at a coal preparation plant (CPP) in NSW was a solids recovery of 82 wt% at a product moisture of 24.3wt%. By comparison the best product achieved with a conventional wedge wire basket was a similar moisture content but solids recovery was only 64 wt%. This could only be achieved after the feed had been artificially thickened. Conditioning of the centrifuge feed with polymer flocculants led to an increase in recovery up to 88 wt% with a moisture content of ca 25 wt%. It is thought that optimizing additive selection and conditioning parameters, as well as screen aperture and open area, could improve performance still further. The results were obtained using centrifuging conditions (centrifugal force, feed solids, feed rate) in the pilot-scale machine which should be possible to translate into conventional designs of commercial scale machines, without downgrading solids throughputs. However only with full-scale trials will it be possible to establish this assertion with certainty.

Jan 1, 2001

By M. du Plessis

This paper describes the evaluation of a limit equilibrium model to simulate the behaviour of crush pillars in platinum mines. An analytical model was derived to calculate the residual average pillar stress (APS) values of the crush pillars. The values predicted by this model were compared to the numerical values obtained from TEXAN simulations. In general, the limit equilibrium model appears to be very attractive for simulating pillar failure as the gradual crushing of the outside of the pillar and the transfer of stress to the intact core can be replicated. The value of the TEXAN crush pillar model was further demonstrated by simulating an idealized layout with crush pillars between two adjacent panels. The simulations illustrated that oversized pillars will not crush close to the face and this may lead to seismic failure in the back area. An important finding of the study is that closure measurements may prove to be a very valuable diagnostic measure in crush pillars layouts. Distinct differences in magnitudes of closure were simulated for a scenario where the pillars crush as expected, compared to the scenario where an oversized pillar is left. Experimental closure data collected in a crush pillar stope provided further evidence regarding the value of closure measurements in these layouts.

Jan 1, 2011

By V Kveldsvik, N Ragvin, T Eiken, G Grøneng, G V. Ganerød

Catastrophic rock slope failures have caused destructive tsunamis in Norwegian fjords. At the Åknes rock slope the tsunami generating potential is large due to the potential large volume involved in a possible catastrophic failure. Widening of the upper crack has been recorded since 1986, and in recent years, a quite extensive investigation and monitorin campaign has been conducted. Data from some of these investigations are presented and analysed with respect to a preliminary evaluation of the stability of the slope.

Jan 1, 2006

By M. R. MacIver, M. Pawlik, S. Finora, H. Alizadeh

The dispersion of mature fine oil sands tailings (MFT) by the addition of sodium lignosulfonate was studied using contact angle measurements, optical scattering, and particle size measurements. Lignosulfonate caused the release of residual bitumen to the slurry surface and settlement of fines. Dynamic contact angle by captive bubble measurements were carried out on bitumen to determine the effect of the dispersant on the wettability of bitumen. Lignosulfonate caused a change in the aggregation state of the MFT and increased sedimentation of particles, as indicated by optical scattering measurements. Zeta potential measurements indicate that this change was caused by an increase in adsorption of lignosulfonate onto particles, which caused improved settling of the colloid. Ultraviolet Visible (UV) spectrophotometry and organic carbon content measurements showed that only a small amount of the reagent remains in the aqueous phase of the tailings, which is critical for decontamination of recycled water. Keywords: Oil sands tailings, bitumen recovery, dewatering, dispersion, surface chemistry

Jan 1, 2020