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By Monique Nykamp

"INTRODUCTIONTerminal 46 is located just south of downtown Seattle, and is one of the Port of Seattle’s busiest container terminals. The Terminal 46 Redevelopment Project was undertaken to replace the existing 15-m-wide (50 ft) cranes along the apron with 30-m-wide (100 ft) cranes, which can unload larger, post- Panamax ships. The project included upgrading the existing waterside crane rail with new piles and constructing a new land-side rail behind the sheetpile bulkhead. The new piles had to be installed adjacent to the existing apron without causing damage, which was a signifi cant geotechnical challenge due to the soft soil conditions at the site. An instrumentation program performed during the test pile program evaluated this challenge and allowed for the development of specifi c production pile installation procedures that had the least possible effect on construction costs and schedule. SITE HISTORYThe site lies along the west side of Elliott Bay, north of the mouth of the Duwamish Waterway. Prior to development, this area was part of the tide fl ats where the Duwamish River drained into Elliott Bay. Prior to 1970, there were several existing timber piers and structures in the area. In the 1970s, the Port of Seattle constructed a 900-m-long (3,000 ft), 30- m-wide (100 ft) apron to support fi ve, 15-m-wide (50 ft) container cranes. The contained backland area was then fi lled with dredged spoils (sand and silt with organics) and the upper 5 to 20 m (16 to 65 ft) backfi lled with sand and gravel.The existing apron was constructed using 0.4 m (16 in) octagonal prestressed concrete piles to support the precast concrete deck and crane rails. The pile-supported bents were spaced at 6.1 m (20 ft), center-to-center, along the longitudinal direction. Pile lengths typically varied from about 20 to 40 m (65 to 130 ft) with 15 to 26 m penetration below mudline (50 to 85 ft penetration). The slope below the apron was constructed at about 1.75 horizontal to 1 vertical to allow for suffi cient water depth for cargo ships. In most areas, a riprap buttress was placed at the toe of the slope. A typical cross section of the apron is shown on Figure 2.Several stability, settlement and pile driving issues arose during the original construction of T-46 (Pita, 1983). Reportedly, movement of the submarine slope occurred during pile driving, resulting in settlement behind the bulkhead. Pile driving reportedly caused settlement of adjacent piles. In addition, some piles were “running” (dropping quickly under one hammer blow) during installation."

Jan 1, 2007

By Monique Nykamp

"INTRODUCTIONTerminal 46 is located just south of downtown Seattle, and is one of the Port of Seattle’s busiest container terminals. The Terminal 46 Redevelopment Project was undertaken to replace the existing 15-m-wide (50 ft) cranes along the apron with 30-m-wide (100 ft) cranes, which can unload larger, post- Panamax ships. The project included upgrading the existing waterside crane rail with new piles and constructing a new land-side rail behind the sheetpile bulkhead. The new piles had to be installed adjacent to the existing apron without causing damage, which was a signifi cant geotechnical challenge due to the soft soil conditions at the site. An instrumentation program performed during the test pile program evaluated this challenge and allowed for the development of specifi c production pile installation procedures that had the least possible effect on construction costs and schedule.SITE HISTORYThe site lies along the west side of Elliott Bay, north of the mouth of the Duwamish Waterway. Prior to development, this area was part of the tide fl ats where the Duwamish River drained into Elliott Bay. Prior to 1970, there were several existing timber piers and structures in the area. In the 1970s, the Port of Seattle constructed a 900-m-long (3,000 ft), 30- m-wide (100 ft) apron to support fi ve, 15-m-wide (50 ft) container cranes. The contained backland area was then fi lled with dredged spoils (sand and silt with organics) and the upper 5 to 20 m (16 to 65 ft) backfi lled with sand and gravel.The existing apron was constructed using 0.4 m (16 in) octagonal prestressed concrete piles to support the precast concrete deck and crane rails. The pile-supported bents were spaced at 6.1 m (20 ft), center-to-center, along the longitudinal direction. Pile lengths typically varied from about 20 to 40 m (65 to 130 ft) with 15 to 26 m penetration below mudline (50 to 85 ft penetration). The slope below the apron was constructed at about 1.75 horizontal to 1 vertical to allow for suffi cient water depth for cargo ships. In most areas, a riprap buttress was placed at the toe of the slope. A typical cross section of the apron is shown on Figure 2.Several stability, settlement and pile driving issues arose during the original construction of T-46 (Pita, 1983). Reportedly, movement of the submarine slope occurred during pile driving, resulting in settlement behind the bulkhead. Pile driving reportedly caused settlement of adjacent piles. In addition, some piles were “running” (dropping quickly under one hammer blow) during installation."

Jan 1, 2007

By Thomas Domanski

Any type of deep excavation whether for Bored Piling, Diaphragm Walls or Contiguous Bored Piling Walls depends on forming a stable borehole with a defined cross-section to receive safely the permanent materials. In modern construction the excavation depth can reach well the range of 100 m and above. The diameters of the Piles reach often sizes of 2.5 m and bigger. Top casings in Bored Piles (Diaphragm Wall none) are rather short and stability below the casing, need to be secured by stabilization slurry. The boreholes need to be formed through a variety of different materials and stand open for an extended period. Without a safe stable borehole, it is impossible to produce quality products and work cost-efficient. The understanding and proper usage of a suitable slurry is a key element essential for the delivery of Foundation Elements with high quality and within a reasonable budget. The setting of mechanical and rheological parameters in specifications is necessary and helpful, but probably insufficient to embrace and control such a key element in the practical implementation of foundation construction. The proper selection, design, implementation and supervision of slurries on site requires both from Contractors and Engineers to understand how different slurries do function. Only with this knowledge the right decisions in slurry operations can be made. This talk is directed to give some help to both, Contractor’s and Engineer’s, in understanding how different type of slurries do work. (Which ones should be preferred in what kind of soils.) The better knowledge will help the Contractor to control cost and enhance production. The Engineer will be able to assist in arriving at the appropriate technical choices and include in the specifications.

Sep 1, 2022

By Brian D. Barkauskas, Terence P. Holman

A major combined nuclear and coal-fired power plant, located in on the western coast of Florida has undergone multiple upgrades in recent years to increase power output and enhance environmental controls. Construction of new elements within the existing plant structure required working in highly congested conditions and heavy crane lifts with large picking radii. The largest crane pick involved the use of an 1800 metric tonne capacity Mammoet PTC ring crane for a single long-radius, high altitude lift of a precipitator unit. Original bid tender documents had called for drilled shaft foundation support, but the presence of many critical utilities and unfavorable access for cost effective construction led specialty contractor Moretrench American Corporation to propose an alternate micropile foundation on the basis that high capacities could be achieved in the weak limestone geology and that the smaller size of micropiles would allow for more surgical installation in the utility-congested areas. This case history describes the design and construction of seventy three (73) high capacity micropiles for the value engineering alternative and the crane foundation for this critical lift. Each micropile was founded in a competent dolomitic fossiliferous limestone unit at typical depths of 23 m below existing ground surface. Strain gauge instrumented load testing was used to validate the geotechnical design parameters in the weak limestone bedrock and resulted in the finding that the entire test load was being carried in the upper half of the bond zone. Construction of the production micropiles required numerous relocations due to utility conflicts and local reanalysis and redesign of the 1.2 m thick reinforced concrete ring beam cap. Crane foundation performance was satisfactory and the effective life of this temporary foundation was only 6 months before decommissioning and demolition.

Jan 1, 2017

By A. Daugiala, D. Coleman

In 2014 the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) awarded a Design-Build contract to the joint venture team consisting of Skanska which is the managing partner; Kiewit Corporation and Ecco III (SKE) and HNTB as the lead design firm. The design build team employed methods to provide schedule savings and commercial benefits to the owner NYSDOT. This paper presents the design approach and construction methods used to accelerate drilled shaft installation supporting the main span foundation for the cable stayed bridge. The drilled foundation contractor Underpinning and Foundation Skanska, a division of Skanska was responsible for assisting with design, budgeting and construction of the drilled shaft foundation construction. As part of the Request for Proposal (RFP) bid process, Alternate Technical Concepts (ATC) was encouraged by the NYSDOT. The JV team proposed an ATC which involved a scaled production shaft testing method to simulate the ultimate load level, commonly referred to as the “Chicago Method” was used in the rock socket employing the Osterberg Cell (O-Cell) testing procedures. To the authors knowledge this was the first NYSDOT project where this approach was utilized on a Demonstration/Production installation to validate construction procedures and load bearing capacities. Construction procedures, challenges and solutions are discussed in detail. Upon completion of successful drilled shaft construction, concrete integrity is verified using two methods – Cross Hole Sonic Logging (CSL) and Thermal Integrity Profiling (TIP). A comparison from the contractor’s perspective is provided. Finally the drilled shaft rock socket is tested to ultimate end bearing values while rock socket side shear stresses are not exceeding the service level loading. Lateral load test was also a RFP requirement; the test arrangement and performance are discussed in detail as well. The Kosciuszko Bridge location poised unique geotechnical challenges on many levels shifting towards an extreme boundary of parameters encountered in New York City Area for drilled shaft construction. The JV team and specialty drilled shaft contractor actively participating in the shaft design and construction practice coordination and working with NYSDOT yielded a successful foundation solution which provided cost and schedule savings to the project.

Jan 1, 2016

By Serhan Guner, Sundar Chiluwal

Although significant research has been conducted on helical piles, there is a lack of research and official design provisions on the helical pile-to-pile cap connections. These connections may govern the global response of pile cap systems—especially in tall and light structures where uplift forces dominate the response. To improve future industry practice, the objective of this study is to understand the influence of pile-to-pile cap connections on the global behavior of concrete pile caps and develop recommendations for their efficient design. For this purpose, 108 high- fidelity nonlinear finite element simulations are conducted to quantify the influences of bracket type, embedment depths, longitudinal reinforcement percentages, shear span-to-depth ratios, and loading conditions on the load, deformation, cracking, and failure behavior of concrete pile caps. The results indicate that the design configurations involving single bracket type may result in premature concrete cracking around the anchorage zones with a 25% reduction in the uplift load capacity. The investigations also confirm that high reinforcement percentages and low shear span-to-depth ratios result in higher load resistance in all bracket types, and that the load capacities of the double and studded bracket types are similar. For applications requiring the use of lower embedment depths, it is recommended that either double or studded bracket types be used. The research findings have applicability to both helical and micro piles given that both include similar connection types. INTRODUCTION Tall and light structures may experience significant uplift forces at their foundations due to large overturning moments from wind or other lateral loads. Helical piles (e.g., Fig. 1a) can provide a cost- effective, practical, and resilient solution for resisting significant uplift forces. In order to realize the full potential of helical piles, it is imperative that the helical pile-to-pile cap connections (see Figs. 1b, c and d for examples) are properly designed to resist the applied forces. However, there is a lack of research and associated knowledge on the influence of pile-to-pile cap connection detailing on the global response of pile caps.

Jan 1, 2019

By Steven R. Ahlfield, Ali Ghandeharioon

A wastewater treatment plant commissioned in 1978 is undergoing a major expansion. Planning various phases of the 8-hectare expansion at this site requires an understanding of the site response during and after construction, and the potential impact on adjacent properties and infrastructure. The expansion project requires nominally 5 m of site grading fill for flood protection. The site is underlain by loose to compact fine sand over firm to very stiff clay stratum that extends to great depths. Ground improvement is required to mitigate the liquefaction hazard in the fine sand stratum, and preloading is proposed to reduce post- construction settlements in the deep clay. Site development and foundation systems for the plant expansion project were evaluated by conducting settlement analyses which accounted for the historic and future site loading and 3-D modeling of soil layers with interpolation between borehole and cone penetration test (CPT) locations. The numerical model was calibrated to match short-term and long-term settlements measured at the plant site. The analyses were carried out to assess the effects of past loading, proposed preload and surcharge heights, lateral extents and durations as well as vibro-replacement ground improvement on post-construction settlements. Two design options were considered for the preload footprint across the site and foundation system for proposed facilities. It is shown that limiting the preload extent and founding some of the proposed structures on deep friction piles reduce the predicted settlements of adjacent infrastructure and result in reasonable performance for the proposed facilities. INTRODUCTION A wastewater treatment plant commissioned in 1978 will be replaced with a new plant on an undeveloped portion of the site to provide wastewater treatment for an expanded service area. The existing facilities must remain in operation until completion of the new plant. The site grade will be raised nominally 5 m for flood protection. The large areal extent of the site grading fill and plant structures will cause stress changes extending to great depths in the underlying soils and result in settlement of the existing and new structures. Historic settlement of the existing facilities has been tolerable for plant operations, but no settlement performance data was recorded during site development and post-construction from 1978 to 2007. Development of the 8-hectare expansion at this site is planned in three phases to reduce the overall construction schedule. Planning for each phase requires evaluating the effects of various site development activities from start to completion of expansion and during the design life (i.e. post-construction period), and the potential impact on existing wastewater treatment facilities and adjacent properties and infrastructure including an adjacent viaduct structure. Figure 1 presents the site plan and three distinct site development phases considered for the plant expansion.

Jan 1, 2019

By Mary Ellen Bruce

Let me first address the issue of the wet grab samples. The wet grab samples that were attempted to take on the Central Artery were hindered by the fact that the way the mixing was being done was only by injecting grout on the way out, during withdrawal of the mixing tools. They would auger down to the required depth (usually with some water being injected), which took anywhere from 45 minutes to an hour, and then when coming out, the grout would be injected with grout. That was leaving a column of grout in the center where the shaft had been (i.e. inside of the blades of the mixing tools), which would end up being something like a foot in diameter because the pipe that was used for the drill shaft was a foot in diameter. So we had 10 inches to a foot of almost pure grout in the middle of our column and then we had 2 feet on either side that was mixed soil cement. So when they went down with the wet grab sampler not knowing where that was in the column sometimes they/we were getting strengths of 1500 psi, and sometimes they/we were getting strength of 500 psi or 100 psi. So what was it that we were taking into the wet grab sampler? In those cases you don't really know, but it wasn't representative of the core samples we were taking. We were purposely not coring in the center because we knew that was going to be high cement content, almost pure grout. So the issue of wet grab sampling particularly on this project, the Central Artery Project, was that we didn't really know what we were sampling. What becomes an issue with wet grab sampling in other projects is that you have to have another device (machine) in most cases, a cherry picker crane or something similar that can raise and lower with a beam that is used to forces the sampler down into the freshly mixed soil-cement. And regarding economics, is it more economical to have that crane standing by with its operator or to have a drill rig to come along later and do the coring and take the material out that's fairly identical to what you're finding in situ? The complaint of micro-fracturing in the core samples as you're taking the cores was raised by Seiko as causing large strength reductions. But, if you're doing it carefully, then I don't think that's much of an issue anymore, on research basis perhaps but not on a practical level.

Feb 10, 2003

By Daniel A. Thome, Robert C. Janke

"Installation of permanent soil nails through distressed mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls is a cost effective and aesthetically pleasing solution when using the appropriate equipment and drilling methods for installation. A forensic investigation was performed on an existing mechanically stabilized earth retaining wall to determine the possible causes for the excessive horizontal displacements and visual structural flaws found along a portion of the wall. Reports concluded that the visual shifting was due to a number of factors including improper drainage in the vicinity of the wall and unsuitable compaction of the backfill material. Conceptual designs were proposed to the owner and the installation of permanent soil nails through the existing precast panels was determined to be the most practical solution. A total of ninety-three permanent soil nails were installed to lengths of up to 40 feet (12 m) through sand backfill and silty day fill using a hydraulic rotary percussion drill attached to a tract mounted excavator.IntroductionThe Illinois State Toll Highway Authority awarded Contract RR-03-5144 in the summer of 2004. Construction work for the project consisted of the rehabilitation of two existing concrete culverts and approximately 100 linear feet (31 m) of mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) retaining wall. The retaining wall is located below the southbound lanes of the Tri-State Tollway near the intersection of Federal Highway 41 in Wadsworth, Illinois as shown in Figure 1.Reports were prepared by Applied Technologies in cooperation with Giles Engineering Associates to determine the condition of the MSE wall and recommended conceptual designs to extend the service life of the wall.Nicholson Construction Company (Nicholson) wasselected as the design-build geotechnical subcontractor to install the recommended permanent soil nails through the existing precast concrete panels of the MSE wall. Rehabilitation of the wall involved the installation of ninety-three permanent soil nails through the existing wall, along with soil nail verification tests and proof tests on production nails."

Jan 1, 2005

By M. D. Riegel, Brian T. Felber

"Construction of foundation elements in an urban environment is often complicated by multiple constraints such as existing foundations, utility conflicts, maintenance and protection of traffic on high volume roadways, low overhead clearances, and vibration and displacement monitoring to reduce risks of impact to existing facilities. Micropiles are commonly a preferred foundation alternative in an urban setting to mitigate some of these risks. This paper presents examples in which micropiles helped reduce risk in an urban setting on the two subject infrastructure improvement projects. The case studies presented include the Verrazano Narrows Bridge HOV and Bus Ramp Improvements in Brooklyn, NY and the Kosciuszko Bridge Replacement in Queens and Brooklyn, NY. The paper details the micropile design, how risks were mitigated, and the complications to each of these projects associated with the urban setting.INTRODUCTIONThe paper begins with background information about the Verrazano Narrows Bridge HOV and Bus Ramp Improvements Project, followed by background information for the Kosciuszko Bridge Replacement Project. This introductory background information is followed by discussion of the urban site constraints, which controlled the foundation type selection for both projects. In closing, the paper discusses the micropile design process, load testing, and construction.VERRAZANO NARROWS BRIDGE HOV & BUS RAMP IMPROVEMENTS BACKGROUNDProject ScopeThe project consists of two new ramps; one designated for HOV / Bus traffic between Staten Island and the Gowanus Expressway, and one to be utilized for storing the barrier transfer vehicle. Also included is the complete reconstruction of Ramps B and F to accommodate horizontal and vertical alignment clearances from the new ramps, removal of the median of the upper level to add one lane, utilities improvements, stormwater improvements, and miscellaneous structural repairs. The new HOV / Bus Ramp was designed for reversible traffic flow to accommodate the demand of the peak traffic direction by movable barrier.Geotechnical / Foundation Engineering ScopeThe geotechnical work included a desk study review of existing plans, geotechnical reports, and geologic maps. This data was subsequently supplemented with a subsurface exploration program. Once completed, foundation design was performed for 25 proposed bridge substructures. Four existing battered pilesupported foundations and two shallow foundations were evaluated for increased loading. Upon completion of the foundation design, foundation plans, specifications, and an engineer’s estimate were prepared. Foundation installation was observed on a part-time as needed basis."

Jan 1, 2016

By Eric S. Lindquist

Two microtunnel access shafts were constructed using the Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM) method in the San Joaquin Delta region of California, east of San Francisco. Unlike conventional slurry walls and diaphragm walls that utilize concrete, soil mixing relies on blending the soils in situ with a cement slurry to create a soil-cement wall. Cutter Soil Mixing technology utilizes two sets of vertically mounted cutting wheels rotating about a horizontal axis to produce rectangular panels of treated soil. Overlapping of the soil mixed panels enabled the construction of two circular shafts. CSM panels were constructed to a depth of 29 m (95 ft) for the microtunnel jacking shaft and to a depth of 19 m (63 ft) for the microtunnel receiving shaft. The site presented several challenges, including the high depth of treatment, the variable nature of the alluvial soils, and the high water table. This paper describes the CSM technique and presents the design, construction, quality control measures and advantages of using this method for this project.

Jan 1, 2010

By Federico Pagliacci, Claudio Asioli, Marco Chiarabelli

"""Rigid inclusions"" are a consolidation method that provides improvement of soft soils thanks to the installation of cylindrical columns made up of a material with significant and permanent cohesive properties, whose stiffness is 500÷5000 times greater than the surrounding natural soil’s. ""Rigid inclusions"" find their application in marginal areas (reclamations, polluted sites) to ensure stability of adjacent structures during construction of new buildings and to reduce the impact of natural disasters (liquefaction in the event of earthquakes, embankment collapse in the event of floods). This paper analyses the “rigid inclusion” construction method, related materials and equipment. Moreover, two performed projects will be illustrated. The first is the restoration of Lungarno Torrigiani Embankment in Florence, Italy. In May 2016, the Torrigiani embankment underwent a structural collapse causing a 3 m. displacement of the riverbank towards the Arno River. “Rigid inclusions” (with 300 mm diameter) have been used to re-compact the loose soil and create a stable working platform for the equipment. The second project illustrates the use of “rigid inclusions” (800 mm diameter and maximum depth of 36.6 m) to control the settlement of a new automatic cold store (30 m high with a 65 x 120 m foot print) for fresh frozen vegetables.RIGID INCLUSIONSIn general, the word ""inclusions"" means a type of consolidation that improves the strength of a soil mass through the inclusion of elements constituted by a material having better characteristics than those of the surrounding natural ground, to improve the overall mechanical characteristics of the treated soil. Inclusions are ""rigid"" when the material introduced into the ground has significant and permanent cohesive properties (concrete or cement mortar) and a significantly higher stiffness (500 ÷ 5000 times) than that of the surrounding natural ground.Typically, medium-small diameters (from 300 to 800mm) with low percentages of treatment (from 2% to 10% of the volume of soil) are employed, ensuring a high quality and consistency of the obtained product, both in terms of diameters and elastic modulus.According to the scope of the project and in urban areas, ""rigid inclusion"" columns can also be performed by means of small diameter drilling rigs (micropiles), weighing less than 20-25 tonnes."

Jan 1, 2017

By Dalia. R. Mohamed, Hisham H. Hafez, Marawan M. Shahien

"Construction activities in major projects that involve deep excavations necessitate the use of vertical walls surrounding the construction site to play an important role as earth retention system. The walls are usually partially penetrating impervious walls which can increase the efficiency of the ground water control system that usually consists of number of partially penetrating wells. The analysis and design of such system requires 3D numerical simulation. The aim of this study is to develop simplified semi-empirical approach to analyze and design such system. The analyzed model is a single well in a square site that is surrounded by impervious walls along the perimeter of the site in an unconfined aquifer. The results of the parametric analysis are presented in this paper aiming to assess and understand the factors that influence dewatering in terms of ground water or drawdown profile surrounding the well. The parametric analysis is carried out using the 3D finite difference software. The parametric analysis comprises with more than 550 cases calculated. The study involved the parameters; well penetration depth, impervious wall penetration depth, size of the construction pit, coefficient of permeability, well yield and well location or distance between well center to impervious wall edge.IntroductionThe presence of groundwater in a site may have impact on the construction processes involved during the course of project construction, especially those projects that involve deep excavations. Deep excavations, especially in urban areas, require the construction of supported walls all around the site perimeter to ensure the stability of the excavation. In most of cases, the constructed walls are relatively impervious. Depending on the ground and site conditions, the walls are not penetrating all the way down through to the bottom of the aquifer and thus the walls are partially penetrating walls. The presence of ground water necessitates the lowering of the groundwater to levels below the bottom of the excavation to ensure working in dry. This paper focuses on groundwater control systems that consist of deep wells inside square areas enclosed by impervious walls partially penetrating unconfined aquifers. The wells are partially penetrating the aquifer, as well. There are many factors or parameters that are related to the configurations of the components of the system that may influence the drawdown of a well in such groundwater control system. This paper is a part of a comprehensive study that aims to development of a simple method for estimating the drawdown of dewatering system of the described configuration. In order to achieve such a major goal, a 3D finite difference model is developed for the problem in hand. A comprehensive parametric analysis was then carried out to investigate the influence of all the parameters on the drawdown of a deep well in such groundwater control system. This paper describes the problem, the model, the parametric analysis including the involved parameters. The paper, then, demonstrate the results of the analysis showing the influence of the studied parameters on the drawdown of a single well."

Jan 1, 2016

By James P. Hambleton, Anastasia Nally

This work focuses on the numerical simulation of multi-plate anchor systems (e.g., helical anchors) in sand subjected to vertical loading. In assessing the stiffness and capacity of these multi-plate anchor systems, full awareness of the abilities and limitations of the various analysis methods must be understood. This work first summarizes studies completed by others and then goes on to assess the failure mechanisms of multi-plate anchors in sand and the influence of (1) plate width-to-depth ratio, (2) number of plates, and (3) relative positioning of plates. The analysis makes use of (1) conventional limit analysis, (2) so-called modified limit analysis that employs reduced strength parameters to account for the influence of soil dilatancy, and (3) the displacement-based finite element method, which considers elastic as well as plastic deformation leading to failure. The work critically reflects on limitations in the current analysis methods for helical ground anchors. INTRODUCTION Helical anchors are a relatively low cost foundation type, typically consisting of a steel rod and single or multiple plate attachments. In recent decades, they have seen rapid growth, and as outlined by Merifield and Sloan (2006) and Hambleton et al. (2014). Design techniques for helical anchors have previously been predominately empirical, as much of the past research in this field is experimentally based. It is common practice for helical anchors to be modeled as horizontally oriented plate anchors in both numerical and experimental analysis. This work focuses on analysis based on the finite element method, including so-called finite element limit analysis and the conventional displacement-based finite element method, with some comparisons made to experimental studies. Numerical simulation of anchor pull-out capacity in cohesionless soils is stunted by the many difficulties faced when using numerical analysis with cohesionless soils. Additional variations can be seen when comparing the serviceability based load capacities to the ultimate load. In this work, both the force-displacement response (stiffness) and the ultimate anchor capacity are assessed, with more focus on the latter. This work focuses only on analysis techniques for multi-plate anchors with vertical loading in cohesionless soils. Many studies have been completed in this area, some of which assume a rectangular plate in a plain strain model (Rowe & Davis, 1982; Merifield & Sloan, 2006; Cerfontaine et al., 2019). Whereas others use axisymmetric conditions (Baker and Kondner, 1966; Saeedy, 1987; Murray & Geddes, 1987; Ghaly & Hanna, 1994; Sakai & Tanaka, 1998; Merifield et al., 2006;) and minimal studies considered both axisymmetric and plane strain in the one study (Vesic, 1971; Tagaya et al., 1988; Murray & Geddes, 1987; Sarac, 1989).

Jan 1, 2019

By Ramin Motamed, Farshid Ghazavi, Joseph A. W. Toth

"Post-disaster reconnaissance of areas affected by earthquakes has documented extensive damage to buildings with shallow foundations located in liquefaction-prone areas. Currently, estimation of liquefaction settlement is based on empirical correlations that evaluate settlement in the free-field environment and are based on one-dimensional consolidation. However, observations have shown that liquefaction settlement under buildings can be considerably greater. This research is based on a series of 1- g shake table experiments using a transparent soil box to reproduce liquefaction-induced building settlement. Building settlements were evaluated using a scaled model of a building foundation representing a 1-2 story building. Comprehensive parametric study was carried out to establish the effects of several parameters on free-field and building settlements such as building width and thickness of liquefiable soil layer. The experiments utilized accelerometers and pore-water pressure sensors to monitor ground accelerations and buildup of pore-water pressures in both the free-field and model building footprint. Results of these experiments are compared to available centrifuge tests and field observations and conclusions are drawn with respect to the potential scaling effects. Lastly, this paper discusses the feasibility of installing helical piles as a mitigation strategy to reduce the building settlements by presenting some of the exploratory experimental data obtained from this series of 1-g shake table tests.INTRODUCTIONThe 2010-2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence and the 2011 Great Tohoku earthquake are some of the most recent examples where large numbers of low-story structures sustained damage resulting from liquefaction-induced settlements. This damage has commonly been observed in residential and commercial areas developed over loose, unconsolidated and saturated coarse grained soils resulting from both natural and man-made deposits. Damages incurred from the 2010-2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence occurred in the largely unconsolidated fluvial environment bordering the Avon River in Christchurch (Henderson 2013). Similar damage was also incurred during the 2011 Great Tohoku earthquake where liquefaction of soils occurred in both young alluvial deposits and fill materials (Ashford et al. 2011). Figure 1 presents typical modes of failure to structures resulting from the effects of liquefaction. Current practices in evaluation of liquefaction settlement rely on empirical correlations (Tokimatsu et al. 1987; Ishihara et al. 1992) developed for liquefiable soils in the freefield environment (Dashti et al. 2010a). However, recent observations of the performance of foundations suggest that settlement of rigid shallow foundations in liquefiable soils are commonly greater than those predicted in the free-field. Therefore, new correlations should be developed to better predict the degree of settlement of shallow foundations in liquefiable soils. Current research is beginning to focus on the mechanisms of settlement during liquefaction in regards to confining stress, pore-water pressure and shear stress induced from foundations (Dashti et al. 2010b)."

Jan 1, 2016

By William M. Tanner, Daniel C. Brahana

"A drilled pier foundation was originally designed to support the proposed G. Wayne Clough Undergraduate Learning Commons on the campus of Georgia Tech in Atlanta, GA. Reflective of the site geology, the original drilled pier foundation was divided into a Northern and Southern portion with an allowable end bearing capacity of 60 ksf and 100 ksf, respectively. After initial pricing on the original design, several value engineering options were submitted that featured changes to the original design capacity and construction method. The project team selected the value engineering option that involved conducting an Osterberg Load Cell test to assess end bearing of the site bedrock and skin friction. Results of the Osterberg Load Cell test justified increasing the allowable end bearing capacity of the site bedrock to 100 ksf in the Northern portion and 125 ksf in the Southern portion. Considering the final foundation design and Osterberg Load Cell test program, a net savings of approximately $259,000, or approximately 34%, was obtained over the original design.Project BackgroundThe G. Wayne Clough Undergraduate Learning Commons (CULC) is a 5-story academic building on the Georgia Tech campus in Atlanta, Georgia. The CULC was completed in 2011 and consists of a concrete frame structure supported on a drilled pier foundation.After pricing of the original drilled pier foundation design, several value engineering (VE) analyses were performed by the foundation contractor in an effort to demonstrate the potential for a reduced foundation cost. The VE analyses focused on variations in design assumptions, as well as construction techniques. This paper presents a case study that demonstrates how the value engineering process can be used to reduce foundation costs.Site Investigation and Subsurface ConditionsThe CULC building site is located within the Southern Piedmont Physiographic Province, an area underlain by metamorphic and igneous rocks. McConnell and Abrams (1984) indicate that the site is located at the boundary between two distinct geologic formations. The Northern portion of the site is underlain by the Wahoo Creek Formation while the Southern portion of the site is underlain by the Stonewall Formation. The following paragraphs briefly describe the geotechnical investigations performed by the project geotechnical engineer (GE) for the CULC."

Jan 1, 2015

By Parameswaran V. S, Anshuman Singh

This is a case study on ground improvement using Stone columns at Kokrajhar in Assam which comes under seismic Zone V as per IS: 1893. The strata at site comprised of mostly fine sands with low SPTN values, fine content less than 10% and ground water table (GWT) at shallow depth. As ground water table subjected to seasonal variation, water table is considered at ground level for designing purpose. The geotechnical profile of the boreholes was analysed on the guidelines of IS 1893 (Part 1) -2016 and it was observed that the liquefaction potential of the soil layers is prominent and ground improvement is inevitable up to a depth of 9.5 m below existing ground level. In order to mitigate the liquefaction of soil layer, Stone columns were proposed. The in-situ soil is densified using wet top feed vibroreplacement method with an area replacement ratio of 16%, so that the relative density of the soil can be enhanced to prevent liquefaction risk. Correlation between relative density, fines content and increment of SPT N –value given by Tokimatsu and Yoshimi (1983) was used for designing purpose. Field tests such as SPTs were carried out at site to validate the extent of SPT (N) improvement. Detail comparison of pre and post density, SPT N values and CRR values were discussed in this paper.

Nov 1, 2022

By George Machan

Bitumen coatings have been successfully used to significantly reduce downdrag on piles. Thicker coatings of "soft" bitumens can accommodate downdrag so well that very little downdrag load is transferred to the pile. Many of the case histories describe better than 80 percent downdrag load reduction. Bitumen coatings have been used on several projects in Oregon. On the Mocks Bottom Bridge project (see Reference 1), experimentation and instrumentation confirmed the viability of bitumen coatings and provided insights for design and construction. Subsequent bridge projects have used this information and have raised issues to be resolved.

Jan 1, 1989

By H. R. Taber

The extensive subject area "Engineering Practice of Ground Improvement" will be treated within the limitations of space and the writer on the basis of personal practice and experience?largely in Northern California over a period of some thirty-six years and, in "ground improvement" work, with an emphasis on transportation facilities. The stress is on improvement of ground conditions, rather than on techniques of improving inherent earth materials characteristics. "Ground improvement" is discussed as engineering resolution of existing or emergent earth materials defects or deficiencies?that is, as the technically feasible procedures best adapted to achieving a required level of service within physical, economic, social and other constraints. A "required level of service" concept is presented as a tool in evaluation of appropriate ground improvement work.

Jan 1, 2010

By Tony Amis, Marco Barla, Alice Di Donna

"Energy geostructures are becoming an increasingly popular solution around the world for Developers looking to reduce CO2 and system running costs. Energy geostructures are geotechnical structures that provide both the important role of structural stability while also acting as a heat exchanger with the ground, enabling the supported buildings and or infrastructure to be heated and cooled using the principle of low enthalpy geothermal systems. The main advantage of this innovative technology with respect to standard geothermal plant is the reduction of the initial installation costs and construction schedule benefits, compared to installing conventional geothermal solutions, largely due to the additional use of structures which would be constructed in any case. However, it is important with respect to energy geostructures that additional aspects need careful consideration. For this very reason, several research studies have been carried out over the last decade on this subject and a number of real case studies have been monitored and analysed. The key difference with respect to conventional shallow geothermal systems are mainly related to the geometry, which is imposed by the geotechnical project, and the need to ensure that the primary structural role is always guaranteed. Special boundary conditions, the reduced depth, the influence of atmospheric external temperature can also play an important role for energy geostructures. They can affect, both energy efficiency and, the geotechnical behaviour because of the possible thermal induced mechanical effects. This paper presents a picture of the current situation regarding energy geostructures and their peculiar features, and collects available data to provide a reference framework. Data has been collected from literature and personal communications and then processed to provide easy-to-read charts useful for practical consultation at a glance. This paper provides, an indication of the distribution of such systems worldwide, their spread in time, and a global view of their actual efficiency from the structural, energy, economic and environmental point of view.1. IntroductionEnergy geostructures are becoming an increasingly popular consideration around the world. Energy geostructures are geotechnical structures with a dual role of providing structural stability and the ability to exchange heat with the ground, to provide low carbon heat and coolth to supporting and or adjacent buildings and infrastructure, using the principle of low enthalpy geothermal systems (Barla and Di Donna, 2016; Laloui and Di Donna, 2013). A closed circuit of high density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes is embedded in the concrete, and a heat carrier fluid circulates through them exchanging heat with the ground. The HDPE pipework circuit inside the geostructure is linked to one of the above buildings or infrastructure through a heat pump, which adapts the temperature of the circulating fluid to the heating (winter mode) and cooling (summer mode) needs. In this way, heat can be injected into the ground during summer and extracted from it during winter. In principle, all structures in contact with the ground can be used as energy geostructures. The first examples of energy geostructures date back to the eighties in Austria and were mainly piles and shallow foundations. A decade later, Henderson et al. (1999) reported on what would appear to be the first successful use of geothermal energy piles in the US, with loops incorporated into the foundation for a hotel in Geneva, New York. As was their use in this New York case history, the typical geothermal energy pile application is used in conjunction with additional closed loop boreholes to provide the required energy capacity for a structure. Interestingly the report concludes that the geothermal energy piles had a better heat transfer performance than the borehole field. The first energy walls appeared slightly later, while still today only a few experimental cas"

Jan 1, 2017