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By Clemens Catesby Jones

The substance of this paper, now amended and altered in form for its present use, was the basis of a private report prepared under professional engagement.* A private report is necessarily objective, and deprived of the scope and technicality of a scieintific treatise—which accounts for the prevalence of drawings and succinct mathematical statements rather than full descriptive details in a paper reproduced from data, of which all the original working-notes have been destroyed. In a practical sense the Hudson river valley clay-deposits owe their present existence to the protection afforded by the rock-formations on which they are supported, and, instead of being uniform in depth or continuity, are subject to the irregularities of the rugged masses which preceded and are now concealed by them. The only available information concerning these deposits contained in previous public reports or maps furnished at best a mere photograph of the surface, and as now apparent this was misleading or unreliable. It was the object of this investigation to determine in a practical manner the location, form and extent of all the clay-deposits at present existing in the lower Hudson river valley, and to ascertain with a

Jan 1, 1900

By Fred H. Lippold, Wm. H. Wolf

Methods of fair payment for excavating, supporting, and concrete lining tunnels have been sought by various owners for years. Tunneling techniques have changed with the development of equipment-from the hand-mucking operation to the machine mucker and, most recently, to machine-boring; from tunnel supports using timber sets to steel sets to rock bolts and, most recently, to shotcrete support; and from hand-placing the concrete lining using wooden forms to pumping or pneumatic placing using steel forms. As tunnel construction techniques advanced, so did methods for payment for the work performed. The recent development of tunnel-boring machines, or "moles," is precipitating another change. These changes have led to some difficulty in providing proper payment for the various items of work for different types of tunnels. As a major construction agency engaged in water-resources development in the western states, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation has long been aware of the need for clarification of payment provisions in tunnel construction. The Bureau has some 150 miles of tunnels completed on its projects and about 50 miles of tunnels under construction. In this construction, the Bureau has benefited by the advance made by contractors in improving the techniques of tunnel excavation. To assure that the Bureau has an up-to-date approach to payment provisions, the Chief Engineer recently established a "standard" method of payment for all types of tunnels. It is believed that this new method of payment will be equitable for all contractors bidding on various types of tunnels using the diversity of methods of excavation now available to them. These payment provisions provide for different quantities for excavated tunnels using the blasting technique or using machine-boring techniques. In this way, the contractors have a choice in excavation methods and an equal opportunity to be low in their bids. We believe this will be an incentive to all contractors to be as progressive as the development of new equipment economically allows.

Jan 1, 1970

Jan 1, 1879

By P. H. Mell

THE little village, from which this formation receives its name, is situated on a bluff of the Alabama River, 175 feet above water level. This bluff is a portion of high table land that begins in the western portion of Choctaw and extends through Clarke and Monroe counties. We find points on this ridge more than 100 feet higher than Tuscaloosa, and nearly as high as the Tennessee River at Tuscumbia. Through this the Alabama River cuts its way, exposing a beautiful cross-section of the strata, of which the accompanying sketch may give some idea. The fossils are found about 75 feet below the surface and 100 feet above the level of the river. There are seven distinct strata. 1. The lowest, extending from the water's edge up the bluff 80 feet, is a soft calcareous rock containing about 15 per cent. of carbonate of lime, with occasional specks of mica. In this a few Ostrea, Turritellce, and Flustrce were found, but so friable as to fall to pieces when handled. 2. Next comes a stratum varying from 2 to 8 feet, consisting of

Jan 1, 1880

By A. B. Young

THERE were produced in this country in 1923 probably in the neighborhood of 12,000 or 13,000 tons of refined and crude arsenic, by far the greater portion coming as a by product of smelting operations. Early this year copper smelters were producing arsenic at the rate of about 425 tons per month and lead smelters at the rate of 7;0 tons per month. During the entire eighteen years prior to 1919, there were produced in the United States only 47,000 tons of arsenic, which amounts to only 25 per cent. of the present output. The great increased demand has come about through the augmented use of arsenates as insecticides and arsenates as weed killers. In an extract from "Mineral Resources of the United States" on "Arsenic in 1922," Messrs. Heikes and Loughlin say, "The minimum possible demand for arsenic in 1923 was estimated at the end of 1922 to be about 13,000 tons, including 2000 tons for plate glass manufacturers, 3000 tons for lead arsenate, 3500 tons for calcium arsenate, 1500 tons for weed killers, 1200 tons for Paris green, 1000 tons for sheep dips and 750 tons for proprietary mixtures. More recent information, however, indicates twice as great a demand for calcium arsenate." The latter has found great use in the last three or four years as a weapon to combat the boll weevil pest of the southern cotton belt. ~t the present writing refined white arsenic is being quoted on the New York market at from 13)d c. to 1455 c. per Ib., while the average price during the eighteen-year period just mentioned was 4.8 c.

Jan 1, 1924

By E. Just

The mining industry is guaranteed an important future because its products are indispensable. However, this can be anything from a brilliant, efficient, profitable future to one of being a heavy-handed, dull-witted claimant for public handouts, according to the caliber and training of the young men who enter the industry. Many views have been expressed about the type of education needed for today's mining industry. Criticisms have been aired to the point that further controversy amongst ourselves could be detrimental to both mining education and the mining industry. It is time we get together and start going somewhere. To canvass the various attitudes of mining educators, a questionnaire was sent to a group of these dedicated, intelligent men, whose primary interest is to help the industry and the profession. The following is a summary of their views.

Jan 9, 1961

By AIME AIME

TWO technical sessions, an excursion through the Midwest refinery and a smoker, marked the first day of the meeting of the Petroleum Division at Casper, Wyo., on Aug. 28. Ninety-nine members and guests registered and there was an excellent attendance at 'all functions. The -local committee under the general chairmanship of J. C. Lindsay, general manager of the Western Pipe Line Co., had made every possible arrangement for the convenience and comfort of the visiting members and the Program Committee under E. L. Estabrook, vice-chairman of the Petroleum Division, had brought together a most interesting series of technical, papers. The meeting centered mainly on the various features of the Salt Creek field but there were also contributions from the technology of production in California, the Mid-Continent, and the Texas fields. The opening session was called to order by Mr. Estabrook at the Townsend Hotel on Friday morning. The members and visitors were welcomed appropriately by Ex-Governor B. B. Brooks, president of the "Rocky Mountain Oil and Gas Association, who recalled the changes that had taken place as Casper, a frontier cow town, became a thriving oil metropolis. F. Julius Fobs, chairman 'of the Petroleum Division, responded and then took the chair. He introduced H. Foster Bain, Secretary of the Institute, who expressed the regret of those members members who found it impossible to stop over en route to Salt Lake City and his own pleasure at meeting with the Division in the field. Following these introductory ceremonies the technical session began with a "Sketch of the Geological Formations of Central Wyoming," presented by J. G. Bartram of the Midwest staff. It was brief and to the point and contributed greatly to the easy under¬standing of the succeeding papers by those unfamiliar with the region. The talk was illustrated by a large scale columnar section -and a copy of the excellent, geological map of the State recently issued by the U. S. Geological Survey.

Jan 1, 1925

By E. C. Lee

THE safety of mine workers has received more attention from both State and Federal law-making bodies than any other industry, a fact that shows clearly the hazardous nature of the industry. The last, but by no means the least, of the measures adopted for the protection of mine workers, is workmen's compensation legislation. This is proving to be a powerful instrument for greater safety in the industries, from the fact that special stress is laid not on how the accident happened or who may have been responsible for it, but on how badly the employee is hurt by it. The injured person does not have to employ lawyers to prove his case, because the mere fact of his employment is proof of his right to compensation. The immediate effect of such legislation is the certainty confronting the mine operator that he must pay out large sums for every accident, regardless of its cause, thus adding materially to the cost of the production of his coal. This fact furnished to the operator the strongest incentive to reduce the causes of accidents; not that the operator has ever lacked reasonable consideration for the welfare of his employees and a proper humane interest in their safety, but his engrossment in earning his daily livelihood has been so great that he has not felt that he had the time to devote to the safety of the operation. This time he must now find because of the actual-cash value of the prevention of accidents in his mines. This agency alone proved inadequate to bring about a material improvement because operators have always been willing enough to improve safety conditions when possible to do so within reasonable limits of their financial ability. The requirement in the Workmen's Compensation Laws of several of the States, that the mine operator shall insure as a guarantee of his ability to meet his compensation obligations, has furnished the needed incentive, moral and financial, necessary to the prompt and effective dissemination of a more general knowledge of the causes and

Jan 10, 1917

H. H. Campbell, Steelton, Pa. (communication to the Secretary) : I wish to thank Mr. Webster for the copious quotations he has made from my writings, as he has given nearly all the arguments I wish to advance. It is necessary to note, however, his statement that most of his experiments were made on universal-mill plates, and that these were not subject to my condemnation of irregularity. I think this is a mistake. It is well known that universal-mill plates are finished under very different conditions of temperature, with the express purpose of regulating the tensile strength. This is a perfectly legitimate practice; but it renders almost worthless any calculations on the relations of the chemical and physical equations when the influence of such finishing is omitted. Another important point Mr. Webster has not answered at all. I have shown by an excerpt from his own table that two entirely different formulæ may be constructed; and it is undeniable that one is as valid as the other, since Mr. Webster started with no premise at all save an assumption that the effect of carbon was constant. This was an assumption pure and simple, and hence has no special virtue. The whole result of Mr. Webster's investigation is not that the effect of carbon is a constant, and that those of phosphorus and manganese are variables. On the contrary, there are two answers, with nothing to show which is right. We learn that if carbon is a constant, then phosphorus and manganese are variables; but that if phosphorus and manganese are constants, then carbon is a variable. This is a distinct advance over complete ignorance, but it is not final and satisfactory from either a mathematical or metallurgical standpoint. Regarding my own formulæ, I would say that they are used regularly in the testing-laboratories of the Pennsylvania Steel Company. The tensile strength of every heat is calculated

Jan 1, 1899

By M. J. Marcinkowski, K. S. Raghavan, A. S. Sastri

A detailed transmission electron microscopy investigation was carried out in connection with a manganese Hadfield Steel. At small plastic strains, numerous individual intrinsic stacking faults are observed. With increased plastic deformation, the stacking faults thicken into twin lamellae which in turn subdivide the original austenite matrix into smaller domains. The twin boundaries act as strong barriers to subsequent dislocation motion and is in a sense equivalent to grain refinement. It is this "grain refinement" which is believed to be the cause of the very high work hardening rates in the Hadfield Steels. In many cases, especially where an hcp phase is the stable one at low temperatures, the stacking fault energy in fcc metals and alloys decreases with decreasing temperature.' Since stacking faults of the intrinsic type are precursors of both twins as well as the hexagonal close packed structure, both of these entities should become more frequent as the temperature of a fcc crystal is lowered. In the case of the twin, there is no chemical driving force for its formation and it is generally necessary to provide the required driving force by an applied stress, i.e., strain energy. In the case of the hcp structure the transformation from the fcc modification can occur spontaneously (marten-sitically) since a decrease in chemical energy does in fact occur; however, an applied stress will provide an even greater driving force toward complete transformation. Since the transformation products mentioned above occur in an inhomogeneous manner throughout the crystal and since these can act as potential barriers to further plastic deformation2 marked strengthening effects can be anticipated. Also because metal and alloy strenghening is in general proportional to the shear modulus, these effects should be greatest in steels of the austenitic type (y), i.e., the fcc types. Perhaps the two most important steels in this category are the austenitic stainless steels and the Hadfield manganese steels. Both may be quenched from elevated temperatures so as to retain the austenitic states characteristic of those temperatures. The effect of subsequent deformation at lower tem- peratures has a profound effect on the stress-strain curves of these alloys. In particular Fig. 1 shows the compressive stress-strain curves obtained with an 18-8 stainless steel which was quenched from 1850°C after annealing for 1 hr so as to produce all y. As the temperature is lowered, the work hardening rate increases markedly. Although some hcp or c mar-tensite can be generated by plastic deformation as the temperature is lowered,~ it is believed to be a transition phase4 and most of the martensite produced is of the bcc or a variety.3 It is this stress induced martensite which gives rise to the very low initial work hardening at 77°K as can be seen in the stress-strain curve in Fig. 1. Similar low initial work hardening rates have been observed in the stress induced Ni-Ti martensites.5 Fig. 2 shows that an even more rapid rate of work hardening occurs in the Hadfield steels treated in the same way as that described for the 18-8 stainless steels a; the temperature is lowered. It is this ability to work harden to such high stress levels that makes the Hadfield steels particularly suitable for armor plate and heavy construction equipment. However, unlike the case of Fig. 1, no initial low rate of work hardening is observed in any of the curves in Fig. 2. Thus the stress induced formation of any low energy martensite phase in any significant quantity must be ruled out. This observation is in accord with the X-ray findings of Otte.~ On the other hand, small quantities of the E phase have been observed by other investigators using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) above Even more significant was the fact that large numbers of deformation twins were observed in the deformed Hadfield steels,678 which were postulated to be one of the reasons for the high work hardening ability of this class of steels.8 It is the purpose in what follows to discuss a series of experimental observations pertaining to the stress induced transformation in a Hadfield steel and to formulate a dislocation mechanism which adequately accounts for the observed results. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The stainless steel used to obtain the curves shown in Fig. 1 was of the AISI Type 303 containing approximately 18.0 pct Cr and 8 pct Ni. On the other hand, the Hadfield manganese steel used to obtain the curves shown in Fig. 2 contained between 1.00 to 1.25 pct and 11.5 to 13.5 pct Mn. In all cases the samples were in the form of compression cylinders 0.220 in. in diam and 0.370 in. long. Prior to testing the samples were annealed for a hr at 1050°C and rapidly quenched into a brine solution. This treatment was sufficient to preserve the y phase for subsequent testing at lower temperatures. All samples were compressed in an Instron testing machine using a cross head speed of 0.02 in.

Jan 1, 1970

By M. B. Kahle, A. D. Pernichele

Four types of slope failures in waste dumps are recognized debris flow, foundation failure, edge slump, and blowout. The first three types, although at times causing considerable damage to property and interfering with mine operations, are not usually dangerous to personnel because of their slow rate of movement. The fourth type, the blowout, is the most dangerous because of its explosive mode of failure and lack of forewarning. The December 1969 failure at Verona dump is presented as an example of a blowout. Data from piezometer holes indicate that the blowout was due to perched leach solutions near the face of the dump. The level of water in this zone is very closely related to the rate of leach water application on the dump. A detailed analysis of core samples indicates that the impounded water was perched on a zonal accumulation of jarosite which is associated with a buried dump surface. Drain holes proved successful in controlling perched leach solutions in the critical zone near the face of the dump. Monitoring of the water level in the perched zone is considered essential in preventing blowouts. The use of drain and piezometer holes has allowed an increase in the rate of water application on the dump while preventing additional failure.

Jan 1, 1972

By Henri V. Reibell

Deep open pit optimization supposes very long and sedious calculations in order to assign the best shape of the pit and the best bottom level, which will give the biggest profit. Computers give the possibility to make these calculations. More over, they allow to multiply trial calculations so that it is possible to obtain more reliable results. The paper does not expose the computer program but only the way in which mining engineers can use it.

Jan 1, 1969

Philip Argall, Denver, Colo. (communication to the Secretary) : Mr. Rickard expresses regret that I have not given more extracts " from the fresh leaves of nature's open book." The quotations used by me in argument were all from nature's open book, and by authorities recognized in the scientific world as being able to decipher nature's unwritten pages, if not lay bare her inmost secrets. The study of -nature should be preceded by a knowledge of her laws. Natural science is but the summary of the observations of the past or an organized and accurate knowledge of the order in which things have been observed to happen. One who ignores the 'knowledge of the past or despises that of the present and approaches nature's open book with a virgin mind but too often finds her

Jan 1, 1895

By Robert Bell

The regions to which this paper refers include the whole of the Dominion of Canada east of the 130 Rocky Mountains and north of the water-shed of the St. Lawrence. Very little exploration for economic minerals has yet been done in this immense country; but that little has already served to indicate great wealth in some localities. Having been engaged for a number of years in conducting government geological explorations in these vast territories, I shall endeavor to give the members of the Institute an idea of the prospective mineral resources of almost half a continent, as far as they are yet discernible. I purpose confining my observations to the economic minerals, and will not attempt a description of the geology of these territories; hut it will be necessary to say a few words about the rocks in order the better to explain the distribution of such minerals. The Laurentian nucleus of the continent is the principal feature of the geological map of the Dominion. It stretches from Lake Superior to Baffin's Bay, and from Great Bear Lake to the Straits of Belle Isle. Hudson's Bay itself, which is half the size of the Mediterranean Sea of the old world, lies in the center of this area. Its shores are bordered in places with newer rocks. On the west side of James' Bay (its southern prololigation) these extend inland over 200 miles, and consist of fossiliferous Devonian and Silurian strata. On the western and northwestern side of Hudson's Bay proper, altered rocks are met with, some of which resemble the gold-bearing strata of Nora Scotia, some the Huronian of Lake Huron, some the older Huronian, and others the crystalline series of the neighborhood of Sherbrooke in the Province of Quebec. Along the east coast (called the Eastmain)and among the islands lying off it, there is an interesting set of volcanic and sedimentary rocks which appears to be identical with the Animikie and the Nipigon series of Lake Superior. The area which I have characterized in a general way as Laurentian, includes tracts and belts, more or less extensive, of the Huronian series. Such areas appear to be most common, and have been best explored, in the country between the Great Lakes and Hudson's Bay.

Jan 1, 1886

By G. S. Hume

RECENT developments in the Turner Valley gas and oil field, 40 mi. southwest of Calgary, Alberta, have indicated a large producing crude-oil area. Drilling be¬gan in Turner Valley in 1913 but no major developments took place until the fall of 1924, when Royalite No. 4 well at a depth of 3740 ft. in the upper part of the Paleozoic (Mississippian) limestone obtained a production - of 20,000 M cu. ft. of gas with a content of about one imperial gallon of naphtha (73° A.P.I.) per M cu. ft. This well produced as much as 600 bbl. of naphtha per day, and until abandonment in 1934 produced 911,313 bbl., which together with the gas sold was valued at about $5,000.000.

Jan 1, 1937

By H. S. Geismer

INTRODUCTION. THERE are three general methods available for obtaining commercial brown iron-ore : hand-screening; washing; and washing and concentrating. Hand-screening has produced a large tonnage of ore in the past, but is rapidly falling into disuse, except as a preliminary step, largely because modern furnace-practice requires all foreign material to be separated from ores before they are delivered to the furnace, and hand-screened ores can rarely be made to fulfill that requirement. Another argument against hand-screening is, that the waste-pile often contains as much ore as the screen recovers. The operation known as hand-screening consists of throwing the ore-bearing material against a stationary inclined screen of 0.5- to 0.75-in. mesh, similar in construction to the screens employed in sand-pits. The recently-prospected brown-ore deposits of Cuba seem to offer possibilities for hand-screening not possessed by the average American deposit, since these ores are not associated with worthless clays. Washing, and washing and concentrating, may be discussed together, since concentrating is never practical on brown iron-ore, except to treat ores that have already been washed. (Strictly speaking, washing might be classed as concentrating, but it is never so designated by brown-ore men.) The various steps of removing ore-bearing material and converting it into ore suitable for blast-furnace use, may be grouped under five heads: loading for transportation ; transporting ; feeding into the washer; washing; and concentrating. These five subjects will be considered in consecutive order. Each of these successive steps may be accomplished in a number of different ways, the choice depending entirely upon the character of the ore-bearing material to be treated.

Aug 1, 1911

By T. A. Rickard

The function of a preposition is to show the relation of one thing to another; it is necessary therefore for the writer to select the preposition that indicates the particular relation, otherwise he will fail to express himself clearly. Is it against common sense' to suggest that a Government is justified, morally as well as constitutionally, in preventing the decay of an industry by insisting upon the amalgamation of the prosperous with the needy? All these seven prepositions are used correctly. With the first dredge introduced in Russia, of Werf Conrad, Haarlem, make, this method of alluvial dining became important. Here the prepositions "with", "in", and "of" are used wrongly. He means: "This method of a1lu;ial mining sprang into importance shortly after the first dredge, made at the Werf Conrad, Haarlem, was introduced into ;Russia." The statement itself ii not true, but for that I am not responsible. Once, while I was serving with him, we were frozen in out of sight of land in the Gulf of Pichili in the North of China. Admiral Fisher wrote thus. He has used nine prepositions in making this brief statement. The sequence of three prepositions "in out of" is particularly awkward.

Jan 1, 1931

Jan 1, 1880

By J. Marshall Rounsevell

It is probably not too far from the truth to say that the sulfur content of the steel bath at the first turndown of the basic oxygen furnace is influenced by every factor which varies in the operation of a BOF shop. However, the determination from normal shop operating data of the effect of a given factor on turndown sulfur content requires a means for collecting a large quantity of such data and a significant variation of the factor in question in that data. In this paper, operating data from 4000 heats collected on the computer at Inland's No. 4 BOF Shop is utilized to analyze the effect of four operating parameters -- hot metal sulfur content, hot metal manganese content, percent burnt dolomitic lime (dolomite) in the flux charge, and the presence or absence of transfer ladle slag skimming -- on first turndown sulfur content.

Jan 1, 1972

By Samuel Hoyt

THE hardness of annealed copper has been given in the literature and is easily obtained by any of the standard methods of hardness testing. It is not our intention to correct published values or to add to them, but to describe tests of two bars of annealed electrolytic copper in which the methods of Meyer's analysis were employed. MEYER'S ANALYSIS OF BALL INDENTATION TEST The ball indentation test is probably the most valuable hardness test we now have but, as it is carried out in the Brinell or Rockwell test, the result may be seriously in error without the operator suspecting such to be the case. This condition results from the isolated and uncontrolled nature of the measurement. The accuracy depends on the accuracy of the equipment and the care and skill used in the operations; there is nothing in the impression diameter, which is all that is measured, to indicate the presence of error. Meyer's analysis supplies a control of the measurements that goes far toward eliminating unsuspected errors. The principles of this work maybe obtained from elsewhere.1 As this subject has not received the attention of this Institute, it may be well to summarize the more important points as follows.

Jan 2, 1926