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SMCRA contains five principal regulatory provisions that form the basis for its implementation: Performance Standards Performance standard safe intended to ensure that all surface mining is conducted in a way that protects the environment and the public and ensures that the mined land is restored to productive use following mining. Permits Before developing a surface or underground coal mine, an operator must have a permit issued under SMCRA. An application for a permit to conduct a surface coal mining operation is a detailed document that consists of text and numeric data describing the proposed mining and reclamation. Information must be furnished on pre-mining environmental conditions, existing land use, proposed mining and reclamation, how the performance standards will be met, and the post-mining land use. This provides the regulatory authority with the information necessary to determine that the operation can be conducted in accordance with the regulations. Performance Bonds Before a permit can be granted, an operator must post a performance bond sufficient to cover the cost of reclaiming the site in the event the operator fails to complete reclamation. The bond is not fully released until all performance standards have been met and reclamation of the site has been determined to be successful after five years in the East and Midwest, and after 10 years in the arid West. However, the bond can be partially released as various phases of reclamation are completed. Inspection and Enforcement If a violation of SMCRA or of a state surface mining and reclamation law is observed, an inspector issues a notice of violation to the operator. The violation must be corrected within a specific time, and the operator may also have to pay a fine based on the severity of the violation. If the violation is not corrected, acessation order is issued to immediately stop active coal mining, and the operator must pay a fine. If a violation is especially serious (for example, creates an Following reclamation, the land was immediately put back into agricultural production. Today, grain and corn crop yields have continually exceeded targets. 2 imminent danger to public health or safety or causes significant damage to land, air, or water resources) the inspector immediately issues a cessation order. An operator must correct all violations in order to obtain permits for new mines. Lands Unsuitable For Mining Congress recognized that certain coal deposits cannot be mined without permanent damage to unique cultural or natural resources. As a result, SMCRA protects these resources in two ways: It prohibits mining within the boundaries of national parks, forests, wildlife refuges, trails, wild and scenic rivers, wilderness and recreation areas; in areas which will adversely affect sites listed on the National Register of Historic Places; and within a restricted distance of occupied dwellings, public roads, buildings, parks, schools, churches, and cemeteries; and Provides a process that allows anyone whose interests may be adversely affected by proposed mining to petition to have specific lands designated unsuitable for mining.

Jan 1, 1992

By Launa G. Mallett, Charles Vaught, Michael J. Brnich

Beginning in 1991, scientists at the Pittsburgh Research Laboratory recorded interviews with individuals who are recognized as experts in mine emergency response. These 30 veterans related stories and observations from events experienced during as many as 47 years of response activities. Overall, the response veterans averaged 29 years of mine emergency response experience and 35 years of mining experience. Interviewees included representatives from mining companies, the United Mine Workers of America, and State and Federal agencies. Most of their comments dealt not so much with technical aspects of particular mine emergency responses, but rather the human side of more general topics, including preparedness, experience, people on-site, mine rescue teams, and decision-making. An analysis of their interviews provides an overview of lessons learned on-site at some of the largest mine disasters since the mid-1940s. This knowledge was gathered so that it could be provided to today's miners and to tomorrow's emergency response personnel. It is expected that the collective wisdom obtained can be used to help train new responders and guide those decisions that will have to be made on the scenes of future events.

Jan 4, 2004

1. Mining to prevent and control underground acid formation should begin with education imparted through: (A) Course work at mining schools to teach prospective engineers. (B) Training of engineers presently employed in the mining industry through appropriate mining extension courses. 2. Considerable need exists to devote more attention to: (A) Hydrogeologic studies of mining areas to enhance the planning of new mines and the abatement program of existing mines. (B) Additional research to explore methods of dewatering the strata associated with mining areas. (C) Further effort to develop sealants for preventing contact between water or oxygen and the acid producing material associated with the coal seam.

Jan 1, 1970

By Edward A. Barrett, Lynn L. Rethi

Recent studies have shown that miners performing construction, maintenance, and repair (CMR) work activities in the conduct of their jobs incur from 39 to 65 percent of all reported injuries in the mining industry, The number is particularly high at surface aggregate operations; however, the problem exists at all mining locations and commodities. To address this issue, an interactive, (3-D) slides training exercise, Hazard Recognition Training Program for Construction. Maintenance and Repair Activities, was developed. The purpose of the exercise is to teach work& to recognize CMR hazards in the workplace and to deal with them using accepted safe work procedures. It was field tested using a total of 340 persons from surface mining operations in six states. The subjects were tested before and after the training intervention to determine if objectives of the instruction were achieved. Results indicated that 7 1 percent of the participants showed improvement in ink test scores. Following the posttest, subjects responded to a seven question Likert scale. These questions related to the validity of the exercise and the utility of the training program. More than 93 percent of the miners reported that they "learned something new from the training" and over 94% said they "would use these practices to work more safely".

By Joseph Grumer

In addition to nine powder and gaseous extinguishants of propagating Pittsburgh seam coal dust-air explosions earlier evaluated,6 10 other powders have similarly been evaluated under like conditions such that wall quenching of the coal dust-air flames was virtually absent and the dust concentration was temporally and spatially uniform to within about ±5 percent. None of the newly examined extinguishants was better than Purple-K (potassium bicarbonate); the 10 of this report are anhydrite (calcium sulfate), monobasic (4 types) and dibasic ammonium phosphate, natural and synthetic cryolite (sodium fluoalumi-nate), sodium sulfate, and tricalcium phosphate. Except for anhydrite, sodium sulfate, tricalcium phosphate, and the cryolites, these materials were about equally effective, when present in relatively low concentrations (weight-percent of the coal dust-extinguishant mixture). The maximum oxygen concentration for the extinguishment of otherwise uninhibited coal dust explosions and the influence of coal dust particle size and the volatile content of the coal were also explored. For the present, the choice of the inhibitor among the good ones evaluated is not as critical as the system to be used to deploy the extinguishant against a coal dust explosion.

Jan 1, 1973

By G. M. Martinez

A cell concept adaptable to large-scale electrowinning of zirconium metal from zirconium tetrachloride was investigated by the Federal Bureau of Mines. Tests were made in twin cells, each 12 inches in diameter by 33 inches long. Electrowinning was performed in one chamber from which the electrolyte was transferred after electrolysis to the other chamber where it was renewed by the introduction of ZrC14 by direct sublimation. The formation of a salt plug in the connecting pipe provided a seal between the chambers. Optimum electrolyte composition, with respect to quality of the metal product (91 pct meeting ASTM standards except for the oxygen content) and current-carrying capability (about 350 amp) was determined to be 16.7 wt-pct NaF-83.3 wt-pct NaCl mixture plus ZrC14 equal to about 3 wt-pct zirconium. A twin-cell design incorporating the unit operations covered by this investigation is proposed.

Jan 1, 1976

By John L. Hill

"The Bureau of Mines is conducting research on the causes and methods for control of cutter roof failure in underground coal mines. This hazardous ground control problem exposes miners to the danger of falling roof rock and frequently results in massive roof failure. This report outlines the probable causes of cutter roof failure, which are proposed based on field investigations, numerical model analysis, and in-mine observations. Traditional methods of control are presented, as well as innovative methods based on mining concepts developed during earlier years of coal mining history. The report can be useful to a mine operator for assessing the causes of cutter roof failure on a site-by-site basis and for predicting the probability of its occurrence. A process is presented for selecting an optimum control method that includes both traditional and innovative control techniques for each of the various causes of cutter roof failure. INTRODUCTIONGround control research conducted by the Bureau of Mines is designed to develop technology that will aid in reducing the frequency of accidents associated with poor ground control conditions. Cutter roof failure often poses a safety hazard to miners and causes delays in production while massive roof falls are cleaned up and unstable roof is resupported. Implementation of control measures reduces the threat of injury to miners and prevents production delays.The definition of cutter roof failure used in this report separates this unique type of failure from other ground control problems, to aid in the analysis of the causes and in the development of control methods. The definition is as follows:Cutter roof failure in mine roof rock is a failure process that initially begins as a fracture plane in the roof rock parallel to, and located at, the roof-rib intersection. The fracture propagates upward into the roof over the mine opening at an angle usually steeper than 60° from the horizontal.The mappable extent of cutter failure may range in length from only a few feet to several hundred feet and may traverse entry-crosscut intersections without change in direction. Once initiated along the roof-rib line, a cutter may propagate away from the roof-rib line of one side of a room, cross the roof span, and continue along the other side of the room. It is important to note that this definition excludes a similar type of failure (sometimes referred to as ""kink roof') that has comparable characteristics but occurs in the center of the entry. (The reasons for this distinction are discussed in the ""Background"" section.) Researchers refer to the cutter failure discussed in this report as ""classic"" cutter roof failure; except for short deviations across intersections and entries, initial failure is confined to the roof-rib intersection."

Jan 1, 1986

Identify abnormal low-frequency blast vibrations. Develop blast design procedures for such adverse vibration cases, including the selection of delay times based on ground conditions, vibration frequency, and structural response. The Problem Research by the Bureau of Mines and others has demonstrated how structural response and the potential for cracking and other damage depends on blast vibration frequency in addition to particle velocity amplitude. The Bureau has published recommended criteria for blasting near low-rise residential-type structures; criteria that specified frequency-dependent amplitudes. The typical vibration frequency from surface mine and quarry blasting is 20 hertz (Hz). Sites have been found, however, that regularly produce ground-roll-type waves with frequencies as low as 4 Hz. The most serious cases arc those where vibration frequencies fall in the natural frequency range for structures of 4 to 12 Hz. Such vibrations have a higher potential for causing, damage to residential structures, particularly at the low end of this frequency range, because of the resulting high strains these frequencies produce in structural materials.

Jan 1, 1990

By David E. Emerson

The Bureau of Mines has developed a mass spectrometer method for deter-mining the helium-3 content of high-purity helium. The work was performed to evaluate experimental methods for removing helium-3 from high-purity helium and to better determine the composition of pure helium used in research. This was accomplished by increasing the inlet sample pressure, ionizing current, and amplification of the current produced by the ions collected on a conventional mass spectrometer that had been modified. With these modifications, the helium-3 content was determined in the parts-per-million and parts-per-billion range in helium-4.

Jan 1, 1976

By Paul W. Jeran, Michael A. Trevits, William P. Diamond

In this U.S. Bureau of Mines study, production trends have been analyzed for 82 gob gas ventholes on 7 longwall panels in the Lower Kittanning Coalbed, Pennsylvania. Cumulative production from individual holes was found to vary considerably, ranging from 0.03 x 106 to 10.1 x 106 m3. Peak production rates were generally about 0.03 x 106 to 0.06 x 106 m3/d, but rates over 0.10 x 1@ m3/d were observed. The variability of gas production from individual holes can be attributed to several factors, including completion practices and problems, the extent of fracture development in the strata above the extracted panel, water production, and location on the panel. Of particular significance is hole location. Holes on the ends of the panels, where overburden strata are in tension because of the support of the surrounding pillars, were generally the highest and longest producers. This observation led to the experimental placement of gob gas ventholes in the zone of tension along the margin of a panel, instead of in the traditional centerline location, which is in compression. Analysis of 7 months of gas production data indicates that the experimental near-margin holes produced 77 pct more gas than did centerline holes on the same panel.

Jan 1, 1994

By Thys B. Johnson

A three-dimensional dynamic programing method is presented for determining the optimal ultimate open pit limit. The method given is based on the block concept and is an extention of the two-dimensional Lerchs-Grossmann approach. The three-dimensional technique presented herein is fast and simple and may be used for an initial open pit evaluation when only limited data are available or as a more refined model when the entire deposit is well delineated. The method is illustrated by simple numerical examples and is also presented in algorithmic form. A computer program was written in Fortran IV which implements the three-dimensional algorithm and some computational aspects are discussed.

Jan 1, 1971

By S. R. B. Cooke

Certain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and a variety of resin acids were used as collectors for specular hematite, magnetite, and goethite. Vacuum flotation tests were used with each collector and mineral to delimit the fields of flotation and nonflotation as functions of concentrations of collector and of hydrogen ion. The experimental results of these tests lead to the following conclusions. The respective fatty and resin acids exhibit characteristic fields of flotation and nonflotation for the three iron oxides. The fields are somewhat similar, and specular hematite apparently is the most floatable mineral. The insolubility of some of the organic acids may seriously restrict flotation at low pH, although the saturated fatty acids, caprylic and capric, collect minus-100, plus-150-mesh specular hematite only in acid pulp. The presence of a lower "critical pH" is explained on the basis of the dissociation and hydrolysis of dilute soap solutions.

Jan 1, 1959

Design a model health and safety program which, when implemented, can improve mine safety by reducing occupational injuries and accidents. Approach The Bureau of Mines developed a model program which identifies the elements essential to the effectiveness of health and safety programs designed for mining operations, and is readily adaptable to all types of sizes of mines. The model program primarily provides training on loss control and accident investigation and technical assistance with health and safety problems. In order to assess the effectiveness of the program, it was tested at both a coal and gold mining operation. Monthly statistics were generated to reflect the number of occupational injuries and accidents, and the severity of injuries (as measured by the number of work days lost during recovery). Observations were made of employees performing a large number of randomly selected jobs in order to estimate. the proportion of the workforce that was working in the presence of one or more of three types of safety deficiencies: Type A-individual job performance deficiencies which could be corrected by the employee alone I e.g., an employee is seen not wearing a seatbelt.

Jan 1, 1986

By G. R. Friggens

A nuclear method for continuously monitoring the coalbed and ash levels and void formation in commercial-scale, fixed-bed, pressurized gas producers is proposed. Measurement of gamma ray transmission through the coalbed is the basis of the method. The coalbed level is monitored by detecting the trans-mission of gamma rays from a 1 to 2 Ci Co-60 source positioned on the outside wall of the vessel. Coal bridging or, alternatively, ash level is monitored by a 10 Ci Co-60 source at the center of the coalbed. Source activities and geometries are calculated for a 12-foot-ID producer designed to operate at 350 psi. Source capsule and detector specifications and operational safety are also discussed.

Jan 1, 1973

By R. P. Vinson, Abdurrahman Cetinbas, Joseph Cervik, M. G. Zabetakis

The periphery of longwall panels in the Pocahontas No. 3 coalbed is characterized by a zone of reduced permeability that inhibits the natural drainage of methane. A residual gas pressure of 105 psig was measured after 1 year in an isolated block of coal measuring 340 by 1,100 feet. The buildup of gas pressure within such large blocks causes methane problems during plowing operations. However, natural drainage holes drilled during development have been found to reduce the gas content of the coal in this coalbed by over 90 percent. The effect of water infusion on dust during plowing operations was investigated using existing methane drainage holes. These holes were cleaned of debris and a pipe was grouted into the hole for water infusion of the panel. Both total and respirable dust levels were reduced by 40 to 79 percent. Water infusion of the panel proved more effective than did the use of a plow-mounted spray sys tem.

Jan 1, 1974

By Philip W. Holland

The Bureau of Mines has developed a trace helium analyzer for deter-mining helium-4 in the parts-per-billion range. The instrument is used for analyzing pure gases, laboratory-prepared standards, and atmospher-ic samples. Accuracy at the 95-pct confidence level in the 50-to 20,000-ppb range is within ±2 ppb or ±0.4 pct, whichever is greater. The minimum detectable helium-4 concentration is calculated to be 5 ppb. The analyzer consists of a modified helium leak-detector mass spec-trometer, a laboratory-built sample inlet system, and a liquid-nitrogen-cooled charcoal trap. A programmable integrator and event-control module make automatic operation possible. The portability of the analyzer allows it to be used in the field.

Jan 1, 1984

By Sathit Tandanand

Geological differences among various coalfields restrain the applicability of subsidence prediction using empirical approaches previously developed. The Bureau of Mines assessed data collected from 16 longwall panels in the Northern Appalachian basin. Attention was focused on the effects of rock lithology, excavation width, and panel depth on the subsidence factor. The results show that the subsidence factor can be expressed in terms of the width-to-depth ratio by a simple exponential equation, which has a coefficient tentatively considered as the subsidence index. This index varies with the lithology of a particular site, and can be expressed in terms of percent distribution of weak and strong rocks in the overburden.

Jan 1, 1982

By George S. Rice, L. C. IlsLey

"A remarkable explosion of fire-damp caused by a discharge of lightning at the new shaft at the Sitalpur coal mine, has been reported by the Chief Inspector of Mines of India, who gave the following details:""The explosion occurred during a thunderstorm, and the evidence showed that a flash of lightning had, to all appearances, passed down the shaft caus¬ing disruptive discharges at certain points between the guides and the winding rope, rending the latter at two places situated respectively .228 .feet and 278 feet from the surface, The distance between the winding rope and the side of the shaft was 5 feet 4 inches, indicating a spark gap ;of this width, and an intensity of discharge which could not fail to ignite the explosive mixture of gas and air known to be present in the shaft.""The Compressed Air Magazine, January 1920 issue, which contained the above extract also goes on to state;""In 1915, M, Ferey described in a paper read before the Societe de l'Industrie Minerale phenomena of a similar character to the above. In a pit liable to sudden outbursts of gas, for the sake of safety, shot firing was carried out from the surface. During a storm, in the year 1905, shots went off in two places after the detonators had been connected to the conductors) we read in the Colliery Guardian, London. These shots were situated respectively 1,400 and 1,410 metres from the firing station, Realizing the possible danger from this cause, the precaution was taken to cut the conductors at the bottom of the shaft and to connect there just before firing, Even under these conditions a shot went off spontaneously, -.owing, it is believed, to lightning."""

Feb 1, 1920

By E. J. Kloos

The Bureau of Mines evaluated all previously approved gas masks to determine their ability to provide respiratory protection against each of the following six selected amines: ethylenediamine, diethylamine, n-butylamine, ethylamine, methylamine, and hydrazine. Minimum requirements were a 24-minute service life at a flow rate of 64 liters per minute (32 liters per minute for hydrazine) and an amine concentration of 1.0 volume-percent (0.5 volume- percent for hydrazine). The three masks meeting these requirements were the LG4, Willson Products Division, The Electric Storage Battery Co.; the GMD-SS, Mine Safety Appliances Co.; and the 084-PHOV-R, Acme Protection Equipment Co.

Jan 1, 1966

By John D. Sullivan, Edward P. Barrett

The experimental work on the utilization of tin-plate scrap at the North- west experiment station of the U. S. Pireau of Mines in cooperation with College of Mines, University of Washington, necessitated the selection of a simple method for the determination of tin in the iron produced. Some of the standard methods for the determination of tin which were tried are given below: 1. Dissolving in acids and precipitating the tin as sulphide, igniting and weighing as Sn02. 2. Dissolving in aciis, reducing with nickel, cooling in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, end titrating with standari iodine solution. 3. Dissolving in acids, precipitating the tin as sulphide, dissolving this sulphide in H3 and H2S04, heating until fumes of 503 are evolved, reducing with nickel or sheet lead, cooling in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, ani titrating with a standard iodine solution.

Mar 1, 1923