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By James S. Graham

Foundation pile driving hammers used in New York City in the past 100 years have been drop, steam, compressed air, diesel, and hydraulic. In 1992, the first hydraulic hammer in the New York City area was purchased by Norwalk Marine Contractors, Inc. from Junttan in Finland. It was bought because of its variable energy and ease of mobilization, not because of its higher transferred energy. Heller and Johnsen engineers instrumented hydraulic hammers on nine jobs. The measured transferred energy for the nine jobs was found to average approximately 80 percent. There is no clear consensus regarding the reasons for the hydraulic hammer being more efficient in delivering energy to the pile as compared to single-acting steam/air impact hammers. To minimize pile damage during installation, and to minimize footage overruns, an up-to-date version of the wave equation software that includes an efficiency value of 0.95 for hydraulic hammers is now used.

Jan 1, 2000

By Emad Farouz, Ehab S. Shatnawi

"The increasing demand for small deformations and high-capacity drilled shafts without enlarging drilledshaft diameters has motivated the development and increasing use of a base grouting (BG) technique. This technique has been demonstrated to improve drilled-shaft capacity, especially for shafts tipped into loose cohesionless soils. Nevertheless, there remains considerable uncertainty in predicting the performance of base-grouted shafts, particularly for shafts tipped into cohesive soils. To date, there are only two documented design methods for estimating the axial geotechnical resistance of base-grouted shafts: Tip Capacity Multiplier (TCM) and Axial Capacity Multiplier (ACM) methods. A comprehensive test program was carried out during the design phase of the Wisconsin Zoo Interchange project to help optimize the flyover ramp’s foundation design. The test program included installing and testing one base grouted shaft and one ungrouted shaft at two sites with different ground conditions. Based on test results, it was concluded that prediction of the TCM method is well correlated with the measured values for both cohesive and granular soils; however, both methods tend to underestimate the axial resistance. Results also highlighted the importance of the base-grouting criteria in taking full advantage of the base grouting.INTRODUCTIONBase-grouted drilled shafts (BGDS), also known as post-grouted drilled shafts, consist of conventionally installed drilled shafts that contain access grout tubes placed within the shaft during construction. After installing the drilled shaft and achieving the pre-established concrete strength, grout is injected at the shaft tip through the access grout tubes to improve soil behavior around the drilled-shaft base. The tip grout injection improves the overall shaft capacity and reduces settlement through Densifying the in situ soils, compressing any debris left by the drilling process, preloading the soil beneath the tip to mobilize the shaft base resistance within service limits, increasing the tip area, and increasing the side resistance in the lower portion of the shaft."

Jan 1, 2016

By James Su

The Green River Valley in Kent, Washington, is a fast growing area containing retail facilities, warehouse factories and industrial businesses, including the Boeing Space Center. Traffic from Interstate - 5 to the West Valley Highway is highly congested. Accordingly, a new corridor, including a bridge across the Green River, was designed and constructed between 1996 and 1997. This paper presents a case history of the design elements and issues associated with the construction of the pier foundations of the bridge. Subsurface conditions were evaluated using both deep test borings and CPT soundings to evaluate the strength and consolidation properties of the supporting soils. Subsurface conditions consisted of alternating layers of loose and medium dense silty sand and sandy silt. Engineering analysis included an assessment of liquefaction as well as pier supporting capacity and associated settlement. The constructed foundations included 6-foot-diameter piers cased to a depth of 120 feet below the ground surface. The pier casings were driven to the design tip elevation and the soil inside the casing was removed by drilling. Despite performing borings and CPT soundings at specific pier locations, occasional trees, buried thousands of years ago through geologic processes, were surprisingly encountered during pier construction. This presented unique and difficult driving and drilling conditions. During drilling, the water level inside the piers was maintained near the ground surface to create a balance of hydrostatic pressure and prevent boiling of soils the bottom of the casing. After the casings were installed, the soil inside the casing was excavated, the rebar cage was installed and the pier was filled with concrete using treme techniques. Construction of the piers is complete and the completed piers have experienced negligible settlement. Owner: City of Kent Engineering Department Timothy La Porte, Project Manager Kent, Washington General Contractor: Mowat Construction Company, Kirkland, Washington Foundation Contractor: Condon - Johnson & Associates, Inc., Tukwila, Washington

Jan 1, 1998

By Mark Maday

As part of the I-94 North-South Corridor reconstruction program, the Wisconsin Department of Transportation (department) is reconstructing the Mitchell Interchange in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Located on the south side of Milwaukee near Mitchell International Airport, The Mitchell Interchange interconnects I-94, I-43 and I-894. Reconstruction began in 2009 with the letting of the first advance contract for local crossroad bridge reconstruction. A second advance contract for construction of collector-distributer roads on each side of the I-94 mainline was completed in 2010. The main contract involving reconstruction of the core of the Mitchell Interchange was let in the summer of 2010, and is scheduled to be completed by the end of 2012. The core contract includes construction of three cut and cover tunnels along two system interchange ramps. Construction of the three tunnel structures is on the critical construction path. The contract includes an interim contract completion date that requires the tunnels to be open to traffic by the end of 2011. A top down method of construction using drilled shaft secant piles for the sidewalls of the cut and cover tunnel structures was selected as the preferred structure type to address subsurface and construction schedule challenges. The department identified in pre bid coordination that no cost reduction incentives would be reviewed or accepted for changes in tunnel wall type. A major component of the tunnel structures requires the installation of 1,500, 4-foot diameter secant piles. This paper presents mitigation strategies to manage construction risks associated with the installation of the secant piles including; prequalification of the secant pile subcontractors, requirement for use of full depth temporary casing, a site specific quality control plan, specifying drilling equipment, and developing a geotechnical baseline report for this critical component of the Mitchell Interchange reconstruction project.

Jan 1, 2011

By Barry C. Slocombe

The development of new ports, extensions of existing facilities and reclamation of former docks will involve consideration of a variety of geotechnical problems. This paper presents data including instrumentation of structures from three UK projects involving vibro techniques to provide economic engineering solution.

Jan 1, 2008

By Tracy Brettmann, Will Bohlen

An innovative retaining wall design consisting of tangent drilled shafts with supplementary seal piles was used to limit continuing bank erosion along the Brazos River in Southeast Texas. The riverbank erosion had progressed to where it was threatening the stability of both the bridge abutment and corresponding approach embankment of the heavily travelled Highway 99 bridge at this location. A tangent pile design was selected because it was both much faster to install and more cost effective than a secant pile system. The design included both 5.5-ft and 10-ft diameter shafts with depths up to 130-ft and comprised both anchored and cantilevered sections. Supplementary seal shafts were also installed between the structural tangent drilled shafts to help plug any gaps between the tangent shafts. The plumbness and diameter of the shafts were tested using a sonic caliper to make sure the shafts were installed within the specified tolerance. The initial design had to be revised when a record flood from Hurricane Harvey impacted the site during construction. Introduction The Fort Bend Grand Parkway Toll Road Authority (Owner) needed to protect the north bridge abutment with a retaining wall system due to rapidly eroding conditions of the Brazos River banks within the 300- feet-right-of-way of the State Highway 99 Jodie Stavinoha Bridge. The extent of the local scour and erosion along the north bank of the Brazos River has caused concern for the structural integrity of the bridge. The magnitude of the erosion along the north bank at the location of the bridge has been measured at about 120 feet over three recent hydrologic flood events locally referred to as Memorial Day 2015, Memorial Day 2016, and Tax Day 2016. During construction, a new record flood level occurred due to Hurricane Harvey in August of 2017 that resulted in a portion of the retaining wall needing to be redesigned due to even more erosion occurring. The Brazos River is an actively eroding and meandering alluvial river plain that naturally meanders and migrates over time. The processes of bank erosion and meander migration were ongoing before the bridge was constructed and will continue in the future. These recurring major flood events, however, rapidly increased the rate of erosion in just a few years. Background. Due to the need to protect the bridge as soon as possible, the Owner selected a project team consisting of the designer, general contractor and specialty deep foundation contractor prior to final design to work together in developing a cost-effective design that could be implemented rapidly. The project team initially considered both a secant pile and tangent pile retaining wall system using drilled shafts. After reviewing various alternative designs, a tangent pile wall with seal piles was selected based on both cost effectiveness and speed of installation. The tangent pile with seal pile option was approximately 20 percent lower in cost and 50 percent faster to install.

Jan 1, 2018

By David J. White

The decreasing availability of land in urban areas, and the increasing demand for urban development is leading to the construction of taller and heavier buildings at increasingly marginal sites. Such structures usually require founding at depth and modern construction methods are making the economics of piled foundations ever more attractive (Salgado, 1995). However, the urban environment is not suited to pile driving. Conventional dynamic installation techniques (i.e. drop hammer or vibro-piling) induce vibrations and settlement in a zone close to the pile, and cause noise and dust pollution. Damage to existing structures resulting from pile driving vibrations is not uncommon (Tomlinson, 1986).

Jan 1, 2000

By Jon H. Gould

This paper describes the following at the new Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) nozzle manufacturing facility, which is being constructed inside an existing manufacturing facility: 1) generalized subsurface conditions, 2) pile load test program and evaluation, 3) pile selection, 4) problems associated with pile driving operations, and 5) production pile installation. The poor subsurface conditions, known and unknown underground obstructions, and work environment inside the existing building, used to manufacture the Space Shuttle external fuel tanks, required special pile installation equipment, procedures, and work schedules to install the economical pile foundation system ahead of schedule and without a lost time accident. GEOTECHNICAL STUDIES In April and May 1990, 16 soil test borings were drilled inside the existing building with a truck-mounted drill rig. The borings extended to depths ranging from 60 to 65 ft (18.3 to 19.8 m) below the floor slab. Typically, the silty and clayey soils were sampled by pushing "undisturbed" Shelby tubes, and the more sandy soils were sampled by driving a Standard Penetration Test (SPT) split-spoon sampler. The unconfined compressive strength, water content, and unit weight of the Shelby tube samples were measured in the laboratory. A geotechnical report was issued in May 1990 presenting the results of the field and laboratory testing and foundation recommendations (Gilbert, 1990).

Jan 1, 1992

By James A. Schneider

The successful installation of long piles driven into very dense sands relies on the occurrence of the reduction in local friction with increased pile embedment, a phenomenon known as ?friction fatigue?. The underlying mechanisms controlling friction fatigue are poorly understood, with some design methods including an adjustment for the influence of pile diameter while others do not. This paper back calculates the installation resistance of 0.356m to 2m (14in to 78in) diameter open ended piles driven into very dense sands using wave equation analyses. Cone penetration test data are used to link soil properties to installation resistance. The study illustrates consistent interpretation of a variety of case histories of open ended piles driven in very dense sands using newly developed analysis techniques and normalized parameters. Results provide information on methods for incorporating friction fatigue into drivability studies as well as a discussion of mechanisms related to pipe pile installation resistance in sandy soils.

Jan 1, 2010

By Michael J. Atwood

Many buildings in Boston are founded on untreated wood piles, which can deteriorate and lose their structural capacity if groundwater levels are lowered below the tops of the piles, exposing the wood to air in the unsaturated soils that surround the piles. The problem of wood pile deterioration due to lowered groundwater levels in Boston first became evident in 1929 following discovery of rotten piles beneath walls of the Boston Public Library building. Repairs to reconstruct the library building?s wood pile foundations were made in 1930 using pit underpinning methods. Today, more than 80 years later, the subsurface conditions beneath several of Boston?s historic neighborhood areas continue to be plagued with low groundwater levels - regrettably resulting in ongoing deterioration to the wood piles that support some of Boston?s oldest and most beautiful buildings. Pit underpinning is still recognized as the preferred approach to repair wood piles and restore uniform foundation support beneath the impacted buildings. This paper provides a brief historical review of the land filling in Boston through the early 1900s that led to the use of wood piles as building foundations. Also discussed is the impact that groundwater level can have on the long term performance of wood pile foundations and the pit underpinning procedures used to reconstruct decayed wood pile foundations in 1930 beneath the Boston Public Library, and today beneath some of Boston?s oldest buildings. Also included are discussions on engineering controls and permitting requirements that help ensure safety and protection to the workers and buildings during underpinning, and some procedures being used to supplement and improve the loading capacity of the reconstructed foundations and facilitate construction of new useable below-grade space.

Jan 1, 2011

By Gordon Demetrick

3900 Yonge St. was not a typical site on which to build a condominium apartment. A steep hill covered the majority of the site. In order to use as much of this site as possible, the rear of the building was to have nine stores cut into the face of the hill. A permanent shoring system was required as the building structure was not designed to provide sufficient stabilizing elements to support the total earth pressure. The total excavation depth required was 36 m (120'-0") with the upper 12 m (40'-0") to be backsloped. The vertical face of soil to be supported was 24 m (80'-0'). The shoring system originally designed by the Structural Engineer was to support this face by installing soldier piles and inclined earth anchors. During bid preparation it became evident to us that the system as designed would be difficult and expensive to install due to wet soil conditions. An innovative design was required to overcome these problems. Anchor Shoring hired John Stephenson Consultants Ltd. to aid them in accomplishing this goal. After extensive investigation together with The Trow Group, a unique design was proposed which provided a practical solution to the shoring problem.

Jan 1, 1987

By Edmund J. Cardoza

The paper describes the design, construction and quality control aspects of the installation of a cement-bentonite (CB) cut off wall to impede seepage through a flood control dike. Special emphasis is placed upon the development of a proper specification, distinguishing the CB method from the Soil-Bentonite technique. The importance of the pre-construction laboratory testing program and field quality control procedures is emphasized by the fact that the in-place properties and characteristics of the CB cut off may not be known until after a majority of the work is complete. Sections are included which describe the construction method, the specialty equipment and personnel requirements and the quality control/quality assurance aspects of the project.

Jan 1, 1992

By J. Stacho, Frankovská. J.

"Abstract The use of continuous flight auger (CFA) piles in Slovakia has increased significantly in recent decades. High-rise building of administrative centre Lakeside Park in Bratislava is based on piled-raft foundation. The technology of CFA has been used due to the advantages of this technology in comparison with driven and bored piles in local geotechnical conditions. Piles have been designed in accordance with Eurocode 7. Resistance of piles was calculated by using an analytical calculation model for bored piles according to Slovak technical standard and CFA technology has been taken into account by coefficient equal to 1.1. Settlement of piles was calculated by using a calculation model which is being used in Czech Republic and Slovakia. Two well instrumented static load tests were carried out to verify the pile design. The results of static load tests showed that the design was conservative. The paper presents analysis of numerical modelling of CFA pile and static load tests. Load-settlement curves and load distribution curves over pile shafts are compared. Software Plaxis 2011 has been used for numerical modelling. Hardening soil model allows considering over consolidation of Tertiary Silts and water pressure in deep sandy lenses. The article also presents the parametric study where the influences of pile-soil interface reduction factor, over consolidation ratio and material models of soils are analysed. The results of numerical modelling showed that the most appropriate results have been obtained when the interface reduction factor equal 0.9 and real behaviour of groundwater were considered. The conclusion of the paper confirms that mechanical behaviour of the ground can be better understood and determined by using FEM than analytical methods.1. IntroductionPiles are among the most frequently used elements of deep foundations. Piles transfer loads down to a suitable bearing stratum when the soil immediately below a construction is unsuitable. Piles are also used to reduce settlement of structure. At present, the requirements of limit settlement of structures are more stringent. Examples of these structures are commercial and administrative centres that form a complex of different tall buildings. High-rise buildings cause greater contact stresses than connected low-rise buildings. Pile foundations in such cases should be placed under the high-rise buildings to achieve an appropriate settlement.Resistance of piles can be determined from static load test results, in-situ tests and empirical experiences or calculations. Static load tests give the most reliable results, but these tests are also the most expensive. This is the reason for constant development of computational methods. Especially numerical methods give more accurate results by using more sophisticated material models e. g. hardening soil or hypoplastic model."

Jan 1, 2014

By Donald A. Bruce

"Abstract The Deep Mixing Methods (DMM), in their current forms, have been employed in the United States since 1986, although an earlier version had seen service from 1954. The earlier developments were strongly influenced by practices in the Nordic countries and Japan, while by the late 1980’s several DMM systems had been developed in the U.S. itself. Since then, DMM has continued its evolution, principally via the challenges of a series of large, landmark projects, but also via distinct, significant technological advances. This paper highlights the key points in the history of DMM in the U.S., and provides an overview of the different methods currently in use.In the BeginningIt is a common misconception that the history of applications of the Deep Mixing Methods (DMM) in the United States dates from 1986 when SMW Seiko Inc. — a subsidiary of Japan’s Seiko Kogyo Company — was established in the Bay Area. However, the author believes that Intrusion Prepakt Co.’s patented MIP (Mixed in Place) system had been used, albeit sporadically (about 30 projects are recorded), since 1954 (FHWA 2000, 2001). Ironically, by 1961 this single auger method had been extensively used under license in Japan for excavation support and groundwater control — by the Seiko Kogyo Company. By 1972, the original MIP technique had been succeeded by more advanced Japanese methods, involving multiple augers. Intrusion Prepakt have long since become defunct.The first systematic studies of contemporary Deep Mixing Methods in Japan began in 1967 when the Port and Harbor Research Institute of the Ministry of Transportation began laboratory testing using granular and powdered lime for treating soft marine soils. Fundamental studies continued through the early 1970’s, by which time the development of industrial scale equipment was well advanced, having its first application on a marine trial near Haneda Airport. Coincidentally, laboratory and field research also began in 1967 in Sweden (“Swedish Lime Column Method”) for treating soft clays using unslaked lime. Reportedly the progenitor was a Norwegian, Kjeld Paus, who had made observations on fluid lime columns in the U.S. It would seem that developments in Japan and the Nordic countries proceeded independently until 1975 when the technology leaders from each group (Broms and Boman; and Okumura and Terashi, respectively) presented their — very similar — findings at a conference in Bangalore, India. Limited technical exchanges ensued thereafter.Whereas the Nordic developments continued to focus on the use of dry reagents (cement and lime) and relatively light equipment compatible with operating on and in very soft clays and organics, the Japanese progressed into the use of fluid reagents (cement-based grouts) and heavier equipment for both marine and land-based projects. Thus, by 1986, there were a large number of proprietary (wet and dry) DMM systems in Japan, and a rapidly growing market already by then accounting for over 12,000,000 m3 of ground treatment."

Jan 1, 2014

By Prasenjit Basu

Drilled displacement piles are being increasingly used as foundation elements, particularly in projects requiring fast construction. Different types of drilled displacement (DD) piles are available in practice. DD piles are classified according to the drilling tool design and installation method. The capacity of a DD pile, depending on its type, is between the capacities of geometrically similar nondisplacement and full-displacement piles installed in the same soil profile. This paper provides an overview of the different types of DD piles and their installation techniques and describes three design methods used in practice. It also compares DD pile capacities obtained with these design methods for two different sites.

Jan 1, 2010

By K. Rainer Massarsch

In some parts of the world, vibrators are used extensively for different types of foundation engineering projects. If used correctly and in suitable soils then vibratory pile driving for example is very efficient. However, soil conditions and the installation procedure have great significance for the driving resistance and affect the bearing capacity of vibrated piles. Also the intensity of ground vibrations which are transmitted to the surrounding soil is affected by the vibration process. In spite of the increasing use of vibrators and the rapid development of vibrator technology, many aspects of pile-soil interaction are not yet understood. In order to asses the importance of factors, which govern pile installation (and extraction), it is necessary to consider the entire chain of vibration energy transmission from the vibration source to the pile, the interaction between the vibrating pile and the soil and the wave propagation in the subsoil, Fig. 1. [ ] Fig. 1. Transfer of vibration energy from the vibrator through the pile into the ground In the present paper, some important aspects of vibratory driving and their significance for pile installation and soil compaction will be discussed.

Jan 1, 1995

By Eric M. Klein

As part of the Woodrow Wilson Replacement Bridge project several damaged wetland and environmental areas were to be mitigated. One of the mitigation projects consisted of constructing a Denil fish ladder around Peirce Mill Dam in Rock Creek National Park, Washington, D.C. The dam is a historic structure operated by the National Park Service. The fish ladder is located between the east abutment of the dam and Beach Drive, a major collector road. Construction of the fish ladder required removal of a portion of the east abutment and an excavation that extended about 22-ft below the pavement of Beach Ave. It was not possible to close Beach Drive except for very brief intervals or at night; therefore, a support of excavation system that would minimize disruption to the public was required. The high groundwater required that the groundwater be cut off prior to excavation; the random rubble and soil fill, and shallow but erratic rock surface precluded driving sheet piling. A jet grout system was selected because the grout probe could penetrate the rubble fill, stabilize a variety of soil conditions, and cut off the ground water prior to excavation. It was not possible to construct a stable wall without tiebacks or soil nails. Given the schedule and tight working conditions it was decided that soil nails through the jet grout wall facing would be the most cost effective method, as it did not reduce the working space as rakers would and would be more cost effective than prestressed tiebacks.

Jan 1, 2006

By Christian Divis

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Jan 1, 2002

By Clyde N. Baker

The paper describes procedures used to predict the settlement performance of drilled shafts constructed under slurry through water bearing deposits to a dense bearing strata, considering both side resistance and end bearing. A full scale instrumented drilled shaft load test on a Jersey City, New Jersey highrise project is used as a case history to compare with prediction.

Jan 1, 1991

By James A. Mason

The State of California has instrumented numerous buildings, bridges, and dams throughout the state with earthquake recording devices. These accelerometers are strategically placed to measure the response of the structure to a specific seismic event. This comprehensive program enlightens the field of seismic engineering after each earthquake. The Office of Strong Motion Studies, California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program, a sub-branch of the Division of Mines and Geology, provides a professional service unequalled in the world. Within hours of a local earthquake, a preliminary report with the epicenter / hypocenter, structural damage, and time history records are available to all interested parties. The included partial report in the appendix, see section 5.1, is one of the reports that C.S.M.I.P. produced after the Loma Prieta Earthquake of October 17,1989. The diagram on the cover is even of interest. This is a small portion of San Francisco. The values on the diagram are the recorded maximum horizontal ground accelerations at that location in the city. For example, the acceleration at Yerba Buena Island was 0.06g. (The "g" refers to the acceleration of gravity. Thus, a 0.06g acceleration refers to the force, F=m*a, that the structure would experience. For this case, the force would be six percent, 6 % , of the mass of the structure.) Yet, directly on the other side of the Bay Bridge, at Treasure Island, the acceleration was 0.16g. Yerba Buena Island is a natural island composed of hard granular material. Whereas, Treasure Island is a man-made island of imported filled. Here one can see the absorption / transmission difference between hard material, which interact with short seismic wavelengths, and soft cohesive material, which interact with long seismic wavelengths.

Jan 1, 1993