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By John V. Beall

As recently as 1964, the situation in the Australian iron ore industry was chiefly one of potential. The only producer was the Broken Hill Pty. (BHP). That company mined about 5 million tpy from deposits in the Middleback Range in South Australia and at Yampi Sound in Western Australia. No ore was exported from Australia. Now, just five years later, and after expenditures amounting to approximately one half billion dollars, BHP and seven new companies exported about 15 million tons (long tons) of iron ore and pellets as well as meeting Australia's own annual requirements of approximately 8.5 million tons of ore. Early this year, the volume of iron ore on order stood at 328 mil- lion tons to be delivered over a period of 15 years, but Cliffs Western negotiations for sale of Robe River iron ore have boosted the volume to the new high of 466 million tons. All of this has meant a great deal to Australia in terms of new income. In fiscal year 1967 (ending June 30, 1967) exports of iron ore amounted to $52 million; in 1968, $128 million and by 1'972 the Bureau of Mineral Resources expects the value of exports from iron ore to reach $242 million. In achieving the position of major- supplier of iron ore to the Japanese steelmakers, it was necessary to build a great many new facilities, mostly in Western Australia. Three railroads, 70 miles long, 182 miles and 265 miles were constructed. A new port was created at Dampier; Port Hedland was deepened and otherwise improved; both of these ports are in Western Australia. In Tasmania, Savage River developers built an offshore shiploading station that has received the recognition of engineers internationally. At least a half dozen new communities have been founded. The narrow gage railroad from Kalgoorlie to Perth and Freemantle was replaced with a standard gage line.

Jan 6, 1969

By W. D. Robertson, J. -P. Briant, M. Gell

The distribulion of dislocatiorls genevnted during the propagalion of hydrogen-induced cracks in Fe-Si cryslcrls was studied as a funclion of temperature f-110o lo 243°C) and silicorz conlenl (3.1 and 4.2 pct). It zoas found that the clislocntiotl densily and the size of the plctslic zone increased with increasing tempevalnre and decreasing silicon conlent. Furtheruvzove, there was a correlcrtion in the dislocalion patterns formed around cracks that propagated at different tempevattrt-es in cvyslals of diffevent silicon contents such that a 1 pcl itlcverise in silicon content was equivalent to a lemperaluore redziclion of approximately 120°C. The experimenlal YeSnllS were compaved with the results of an elastic-plastic wodel that relates the size of the pluslic .zone to the cvack length, internal pressure, and yield stress. it was found that the clzunges in the dislocctlion cryrays with lemperature and combosition can be e-kplaincd by the lemperatrnre and composilion dependence of the yield stress. An wmtsual feature of this study was the observation of low -temperature noncrystrrllogruphic cracks. PLASTIC relaxation can occur at the edge of a moving crack by the operation of pre-existing dislocation sources or by the creation of new sources in a region of perfect 1attice.l'2 The amount of relaxation in a given crystal depends on the crack velocity and the temperature, and can determine whether a crack propagates in a brittle or a ductile manner.1-3 Tetelman and Robertson4 observed microcracks m Fe-3 pct Si single crystals that formed on (100) planes by the precipitation of hydrogen gas during electrolytic charging at 23°C. The plastic deformation accompanying crack propagation was observed in the form of dislocation etch pits and an extensive analysis has been made of the size, shape, and crystallography of the dislocation arrays5-7 This paper describes the effect of temperature on the plastic deformation generated around hydrogen-induced cracks in Fe-3.1 pct Si and Fe-4.2 pct Si single crystals. The observations are compared with the results of an elastic-plastic model for yielding around a crack containing an internal pressure. 1) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The composition of the materials used in this study are given in Table I. Single crystals of alloy A and the 4.2 pct Si alloy were grown by the strain-anneal method; crystals of alloy B and the 5.1 pct Si alloy were cut from an ingot grown from the liquid. he ~ingle-cr~stal metallographic specimens had a Cross section of 0.100 by 0.050 in. with a length of at least 3/8 in. Specimens were annealed for 3 hr at

Jan 1, 1968

[A Aall, Christian H., M49 B VP, Dir of Smelt & Refin, Am. Metal Climax Inc., 1270 Ave. of the Americas, N.Y. Aaroe, Stanley L., A54 B VP, The W. S. Tyler Co. of Can. Ltd., St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada Abalos, Toodulo Q., J57 A Prod Foreman, Lepanto Cons. Mng. Co., Mt. Province, Philippines Abbass, G., M55 P. O. Box 680, Hong Kong, China Abbitt, James M., A54 770 Sole Blvd., Bartow, Fla. Abbott, Raymond C., J59 3442 Greenwich Ave., Columbus 24, Ohio Abdullah, N. Y., J53 Dept. of Mines, Res. Div., P. O. Box 1016, Tiger Lane, Ipoh Perak, Malaya Abel, John F., Jr., J53- 100 Maple, Littleton, Colo. Abell, Leo M., M31 B Conc Supt, Phelps Dodge Corp., Morenci, Ariz. Abendroth, Harry E., A57 A Geol, Union Carbide India, 183 Brabourne Rd.. Calcutta. India]

Jan 1, 1961

By R. J. Fruehan, F. D. Richardson

Electrochemical measurements have been made of the activity of oxygen in copper and its alloys with silver and tin at 1100" and 1200°C. The galvanic cell used was Pt, Ni + NiO/solid ellectrolyte/[O] in metal, cermet, Pt The results do not support any of the equations so far designed for predicting the activities of dilute solutes in ternary solutions from activities in the corresponding binaries. If, however, a quasichemical equation is used with the coordination number set to unity, agreement between observed and calculated activities shows that this empirical relationship can be useful over a fair range of conditions. SEVERAL solution models have been proposed for predicting the activity coefficients of dilute solutes in ternary alloys from a knowledge of the three binary systems involved. Alcock and Richardson1 have shown that a regular model, and a quasichemical model,' in which the dissolved oxygen is coordinated with eight or so metal atoms, can reasonably predict the behavior of both metal and nonmetal solutes when the heats of solution of the solute in the separate solvent metals are similar. But when this is not so, neither model gives useful predictions unless coordination numbers of one or two are assumed. Wada and Saito3 subsequently adopted a similar model to derive the interaction energies for two dilute solutes in a solvent metal. Belton and Tankins4 Rave proposed both regular and quasichemical type models in which the oxygen is bound into molecular species, such as NiO and CuO in mixtures of Cu + Ni + 0. However, their models have only been tested on systems in which the excess free energies of solution of the solute in the two separate metals differ by a few kilocalories. Ope of the reasons why more advanced models have not been proposed is because few complete sets of data exist for ternary systems in which the solute behaves very differently in the two separate metals. For this reason measurements have been made of the activities of oxygen dissolved in Cu + Ag and Cu + Sn. Measurements on both systems were made by means of the electrochemical cell, Pt, Ni + NiO/solid electrolyte/O(in alloy), cermet,Pt [1] The activity of oxygen was calculated from the electromotive force and the standard free energy of formation of NiO, which is accurately known.5 Before investigating the alloys, studies were made of oxygen in copper to test the reliability of the cell and to check the thermodynamics of the system. Of the previous studies those by Sano and Sakao,6 Tom-linson and Young,7 and Tankins et al.8,7 have been made with gas-metal equilibrium techniques; those by Diaz and Richardson,9 Osterwald,10 wilder," Plusch-kell and Engell,12 Rickert and wagner,13 and Fischer and Ackermann14 have been made by electrochemical methods. EXPERIMENTAL The apparatus employed was the same as described previously,9 apart from slight modification. The molten sample of approximately 40 g was held in a high grade alumina crucible 1.2 in. OD and 1.6 in. long. The solid electrolytes were ZrO2 + 7½ wt pct CaO and ZrO2 + 15 wt pct CaO; the tubes 4 in. OD and 6 in. long were supplied by the Zirconia Corp. of America. They were closed (flat) at one end. In one experiment with Cu + O, both electrolytes were used in the cell at the same time. The reference electrodes inside the electrolyte tubes consisted of a mixture of Ni + NiO. They were made by mixing the powdered materials and pressing them manually into the ends of the tubes, with a platinum lead embedded in them. The tubes were then sintered overnight in the electromotive force apparatus at 1100°C. By sintering the powders inside the tubes (instead of using a presintered pellet9) better contacts were obtained between the electrolyte, the powder, and the platinum lead. Troubles arising from polarization9 were thus much reduced. The electromotive force was measured by a Vibron Electrometer with an input impedence of 1017 ohm; the temperature was measured with a Pt:13 pct Rh + Pt thermocouple protected by an alumina sheath. The couple was calibrated against the melting point of copper. The cermet conducting lead of Cr + 28 pct Al2O3, previously found to be satisfactory9 for use with Cu + 0 was also found satisfactory with Cu + Ag + 0 and Cu + Sn + 0. Superficial oxidation was observed, but it did not interfere with the working of the cell. The reaction tube containing the cell was closed at each end with cooled brass heads and suspended in a platinum resistance furnace. The tube was electrically shielded by a Kanthal A-1 ribbon which was wound round it, and the ribbon was protected by a N2 atmosphere between the furnace and the reaction tube. The cell was protected by a stream of high purity argon which was dried and passed through copper gauze at 450°C and titanium chips at 900°C. All the metals used were of spectrographic standard. Procedure. In studies of the system Cu + 0, be-

Jan 1, 1970

By Richard H. Sprute, Dennis J. Kelsh

Slow-settling, fine-grained suspensions can often be dewatered and densified by applying direct current between buried electrodes. Although water removal rates and power expenditures depend on physical and chemical properties of the treated slurries, metal mine tailings from Idaho, Colorado, and Mexico have responded well in laboratory testing, as have 29 samples of ultrafine coal waste from mines in nine states. This Bureau of Mines report reviews field tests at two Idaho metal mines and describes the recent installation at the Henderson molybdenum mine near Empire, Colorado, and the treatment of coal sludge at a Clinchfield Coal Co. preparation plant near Dante, Virginia.

Jan 1, 1980

By R. W. Raymond

to same extent, the assumptions tinderlying Dr. Ilu?ley's con alusions. These amrrmptions are: that 'the loss of metal per million tons of trafffc, depends, first upon the circrtnistances under which the rail is worn; secondly, upon the proportions of its various constituents, ancl that the anlorlnt of loss is afEect~d by eacb constitnent in a cer tain ratio, so that if the circunlstances were the same for all tlie mils, the wear per nliilion tons might he upproxi91ately expre~sed by an equation of the form I + Cc + Pp + SR + Mm = R, io wtlioh I is an unknown valne, dependi~.rg on the quantity of iron (and other ingre dients not determined) in the rail, and assumed to be constant for all the rails ; c, p, s, and m are the experimentally determined quan tities of carhon, phosphorus, sulphur, and manganese, as tabulater1 in YIates VT and VII of Dr. Dudley's paper; and R is the experirnen tdlly dcterlnincd wear per million tons; while C, P, S, and M are onknown wfficients. In other words, it is assunled that the differ ence in wear is proportional to a difference in c, p, s, or m, and that the effects of a change in the amonnt of either are independent of the amount of the rest-—within the experinlental limit5 of the problem. It is also assr~med that sulphar, copper, and other ingredients, not determined, are qually present in all the rails, or at least {lo not affect the wear, since I is taken as constant. Dr. Dudley tacitly assumes the coefficient6 C, P, S, and M to be positive; and assigns certain valries to them, by means of which he redom t.he equation to the form I + Pa: = R, x being equal to cc + Es +Mm i Pp, or tjje uanjbe,. of so-called phosphorus units in the rail. But we do not have R directly given under constant circumstances. The varying weights (per engine, car, or train) and the varying epds, we must neglect for lack of data, and assume that in these rwpects the rails examined have been treated srlbstantially alike. But there remain the varying conditions as to track, which mnst he elirninsted. Dr. Dudley gives six clrlsses, four of which contain 8 rails each, and two 16 rails each. Beginning with the 6~st (tangent grade), take the mean of the figures expressing wear for that clam; and continaing tliis process through the other five, we obtain six expressions in quantity of loss 'by wear, which we assome tc, represent, in their differences, the varying conditions of the trarli, with respect to grade and direction. We now take the mean of these moans (giving double weight to the gmiip containing 16 ohwrvafieras). This general rnean is the 10 of metal per million tons of trafio for a rail of avorage constitution under mean ciroumstances.

Jan 1, 1881

By R. W. Smith, T. J. Smolik

Recent work indicates that fluosilicate ions and or fluosilicate amine complex ions play important roles in fluoride activation of bery and feldspars in cationic flotation systems. In an attempt to further confirm conclusions reached in this earlier work, an infrared and X-ray diffraction study of the action of fluorides in cationic flotation of silicates was undertaken. It should be noted that in recent years considerable use has been made of infrared spectroscopy in studies of surface phenomena,2-4 and these studies have established the excellence of the technique. In the present study infrared spectra were obtained for various products of the reaction of HF and dode-cyclamine hydrochloride with quartz, microcline and beryl. These spectra were compared with one another and spectra of several inorganic and organic substances. In addition to infrared spectra, X-ray diffraction patterns were run on many of the reaction products obtained. A model 137 B Perkin Elmer Infracord double beam spectrophotometer containing sodium chloride optics was used to obtain the spectra. Infrared samples, except for the dodecylamine sample, were prepared by thoroughly mixing the substance to be analyzed with purified KBr in steel vessels on a Wig-L-Bug amalgamator. One-half in. pellets weighing 100 mg were than pressed under vacuum. Details concerning percentage of the substance to be analyzed in the pellets are indicated on the spectra. In all cases except for dodecylamine a KBr pellet was placed in the reference beam of the spectrophotometer to cancel bands due to possible impurities in the KBr. The dodecylamine sample on which an infrared spectrum was obtained was prepared by placing pure dodecylamine between two salt plates. X-ray diffraction patterns were obtained with a Norelco instrument, using a copper target tube, nickel filter and Geiger tube detector. The samples were ground into powders and either placed on glass slides with glue or placed into regular powder sample holders for diffraction studies. Goniometer scanning speed varied from 1°/min to 1/8°/min. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Infrared spectra of microcline, beryl and quartz were obtained first and are shown in Fig. 1. These spectra agree reasonably well with previously reported spectra.5,6 The microcline (Fig. 1 a) and beryl (Fig. 1 b) were from good Black Hills crystals. The quartz (Fig. 1 c) was from a large, clear Brazilian crystal. It is not clear whether absorption bands of minerals are due to molecular vibrations, lattice vibrations or both. Fig. 2 shows infrared spectra of dodecylamine (Fig. 2 a) and dodecylamine hydrochloride (Fig. 2 b). The dodecylamine spectrum checks quite closely with that reported in Sadtler.8 Little is known of the spectra of hydrochloride salts of amines,9 and a spectrum of dodecylamine hydrochloride could not be

Jan 1, 1965

DESPITE strikes, domestic production of copper and zinc in 1951 rose about 3 pct and 10 pct, respectively. Lead output fell only about 7 pct. Primary refined, including processed scrap and imported concentrates, was somewhat higher for zinc, and slightly lower for copper and lead. Prospects are for moderately larger mine and refined production in 1952 according to Standard & Poor's analysis of nonferrous metals. The survey goes on to report domestic copper prices averaged 14 pct higher in 1951, lead prices 30 pct higher, and zinc prices 32 pct higher. The 2¢ rise in zinc and lead ceilings in October will lift the average price in 1952 over 8 pet, assuming no further price change. Currently, OPS appears opposed to raising the 24 ½ ¢ copper ceiling to the 24 ½ ¢ maximum on imported metal. The steep premiums in world markets are likely to be reduced in 1952. Sales in 1951 were at new peaks. A further moderate rise is indicated for 1952. Earnings of the industry were at a new high in 1951. The increase for companies covered in the survey was perhaps 25 pet, despite a tax rate of about 53 pet, against about 40 pct. in 1950. Relatively maintained to moderately higher earnings are currently indicated for 1952. About two thirds of the companies covered in the survey raised dividends, including extras, in 1951. In general, maintained payments appear probable in 1952.

Jan 1, 1952

By Paul Wilkinson

From the earliest times, the principal component of mallplaster has been ordinary lime. Plaster-of-Paris has also been known from early times, but never used to any extent in the actual base-work of plastering-materials; it is generally used for finishing over the brown coat and for ornamental work. As an illustration of the antiquity of the use of gypsum-plaster for mortar, I find that the analysis of the exterior covering of the pyramid of Cheops, as made by Dr. Wallace, is almost identical

Jan 1, 1898

By Geo. T. Lynch

PALEOLITHIC MAN, laboriously shaping a stone implement in his cave, discovered that the dust irritated his eyes and nostrils and hindered his labors, whereupon, muttering a few incantations, forerunners of modern profanity, he removed himself and his work outside. There, ignoring the jeers of the hairy ?old-timers,? he turned his back to the wind and resumed operations in comparative comfort. Thus originated the dust problem in the mineral industries, and its solution. Despite long familiarity with the annoyance, danger, and loss occasioned by dust, little progress was made in the engineering solution of its problems until recent years. Some advance can now be reported but too many traces of ancient tradition and practice still remain. Considerable published information is available but only a part of this is of proved accuracy and utility. The greater portion is either misleading, being derived from too few cases to be of general application, or entirely erroneous, originating in guesswork, legend, or individual inspiration, divine or otherwise. The engineer, confronted with a dust problem, has neither the time nor the special training required to extract the values from this mass of low-grade. It is, therefore, desirable that we attempt to correlate the known values and to put them into a form upon which actual progress can be based. This discussion is, then, for the benefit of that engineer, particularly the engineer in the mineral industries and more particularly in ore-dressing plants, and is merely a gathering of facts already known but difficult to segregate.

Jan 1, 1938

By W. O. Philbrook, R. S. Kaplan

Rates of oxidation were studied for levitation-melted samples of Fe-C, Fe-Si, Fe-C-Si, Fe-C-P, Fe-C-Mn, and Fe-C-S alloys oxidized by mixtures of either 5 or 10 pct O2, in helium at several temperatures in the range 1850o to 2050°C. The concentrations of the oxidized elements decreased linearly with time. Mass transport in the gas phase was found to be the rate-controlling step. Ilowever, a mulliple -film model was necessary to account for the flux of iron and manganese vapor counter to the oxygen flow. THE advent of the basic oxygen and spray-refining processes of steelmaking has generated considerable interest in the kinetics of reactions between oxygen-bearing gases and liquid iron alloys. The object of this research was the determination of the role of mass transport in the gas and metal phases and of surface chemical reactions in the overall oxidation process. Of the reactions for elimination of elements dissolved in liquid iron, the oxidation of carbon has been investigated most extensively. Studies by Fuji and Ura,1 Fuji,' and Gunji et a1.,3 done with pilot-scale basic oxygen furnaces, indicated that mass transport of gaseous oxygen was rate controlling when the metal carbon content was greater than 0.15 to 0.30 pct. When the carbon content was less than this critical amount, diffusion of carbon dissolved in the iron was thought to be rate limiting. L. A. Baker et a1.4,5 levitated samples of iron-carbon alloys and oxidized them in CO-CO2, CO-C02-He, and O2-He atmospheres at 1660°C. These investigators found that the metal carbon concentration decreased linearly with time and their samples exploded when the carbon content fell below about 0.8 pct. They concluded that the rate-limiting step was the transfer of oxidant to the gas-metal interface. A model based on this rate-limiting step predicted decarburization rates within a factor of two of those experimentally observed. The explosion of the samples was attributed to a shift in rate-controlling step from gas-phase mass transport to transport of carbon dissolved in the metal. L. A. Baker and R. G. ward6 and R. Baker7 used freely falling droplets to investigate oxidation kinetics. In both papers, the authors speculated that flame fronts may have been partially responsible for the lack of better agreement between experiment and theory. Swisher and Turkdogan8 oxidized liquid iron having an initial carbon content of 0.97 pct with CO-CO2 and CO-C02-Ar mixtures at 1580°C. They concluded that a surface reaction was the rate controlling step. Iron-silicon alloys have been oxidized by R. Baker7 and Filipov and Martynov.9 R. Baker 7 also studied iron-carbon-silicon alloys falling as liquid droplets through oxygen. He found that the rate of both carbon and silicon oxidation varied inversely with the drop radius. When the initial silicon concentration was greater than 6 pct, the samples cooled during their fall. Manganese oxidation has been studied by R. Baker,7 and by Filipov and Martynov.9 ward10 investigated the loss of manganese from liquid iron under vacuum. He found that mass transport of manganese vapor was rate limiting in argon atmospheres of 0.02 torr to 700 torr pressure. Iron-sulfur alloys were desulfurized with H2-He and H2-Ar mixtures by Peters et al.11 A model based on the transport of H2S from the gas-metal interface into the bulk gas gave fair agreement between the predictions of the model and the experimental results. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE Essentially, the technique consisted of using helium-oxygen gas mixtures to oxidize levitated samples of liquid binary and ternary iron-base alloys. The fused silica reaction tube is shown in Fig. 1. The coil design is similar to that of L. A. Baker et al.4'5 A Tef-lon-sheathed, ferritic stainless steel lifter (B) and an alumina pedestal (C) were used to support the sample in the coil prior to levitation and for the recovery of the sample. Samples were inserted into

Jan 1, 1970

By R. B. Woodworth

In the sinking of bore holes, there are but two fundamental operations —drilling and hoisting—which determine in the main the character of drilling mechanism and structures. There are endless ramifications, however, in the execution of these fundamental operations, according to the purposes for which the bore holes are drilled, their maintenance after completion, the protection and convenience of workmen, etc. The three main lines of use for bore holes are in mineral exploration, the sinking of water and salt wells, and the exploitation of pqtroleum and natural gas. This paper has to do more especially with the last. Here again there are many divergences. Wells may be drilled by either the percussive, the hydraulic, or the abrasive method. Finally, each of these methods, as applied by drillers of diverse nationalities, has followed somewhat different lines of development. The American system of cable-tool drilling has perhaps had the widest application; the hydraulic rotary is also in extensive use; but the Canadian system, the Galician system, and the Russian free-fall system all have their points of recognized merit and are preferred by operators accustomed to their use. These differences in drilling procedure, which rest ultimately on essential variations in geological conditions, are reflected in the drilling structures as well as in the drilling mechanism. The purpose of the present paper is to record those stages in the development of the application of steel to the construction of drilling mechanism and structures with which the writer has been intimately associated, and to contribute to the history of the art of drilling other data acquired in the course of his personal investigations. It is necessarily limited by reason of space to American practice, with especial reference, therefore, to the cable-tool system and the hydraulic rotary method of drilling wells for oil and gas.

Jan 1, 1916

Aamot, Olav Crone, Research Engr., Norsk Elektrokemisk Kongensgt, 18, Oslo, Norway ?29 Abbott, Clarence E., V.P., Charge of Raw Materials, Tenn. Coal, Iron & R. R. Co., 1242 Brown-Marx Bldg., Birmingham, Ala. '04 Abbott, Louis Benjamin, Chief Engr., Consolidation Coal Co., Watson Bldg., Fairmont, W. Va. '15 Abel, Raymond L., Asst. Prof., Dept. of Pet. Refin., Univ. of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pa. '28 Abel, Walter D., Cons. Engr 364 S. Cloverdale Ave., Los Angeles, Calif. '32 Abele, Louis T 1457 Euclid Ave., Zanesville, Ohio. '31 Abell, Leo M Sullivan Concentrator, Chapman Camp, B. C., Canada. '31 Aborn, Robert H., Asst. Met., Research Lab., U. S. Steel Corp., Lincoln Highway, Kearny, N. J. '19 Abraham, W. E. V., East India United Service Club, 16 St. James' Sq., London, S. W. 1, England. '28

Jan 1, 1936

The United States has never been a large coal exporting nation, and normally such shipments, aside from those to Canada, have been relatively small. Since the first railroad was built across the Allegheny Mountains, the imports have been quite small also, although fairly large tonnages of Canadian coal have moved into the extreme northeastern and northwestern states at times. In Table 21 are shown all data available about these shipments from 1790 to 1939, inclusive.

Jan 1, 1942

By Robert C. Freas, William H. Lane, David J. Krohn

Maysville, Kentucky, is the location of Dravo Lime company's new 9 070 mt(10,000 tons) per day limestone mine and 2 727 mt (3000 tons) per day calcination plant. This complex has been designed as a unit, and capitalizes on recent technological advances. Geologically the Dravo facility is.located on the eastern flank of the Cincinnati Arch, with the high calcium limestone being found at a depth of approximately 274 m (900 ft). A systems approach has been employed in designing and equipping the mine. This allows for maximum production while maintaining flexibility and versatility. All hydraulic drilling, large LHD equipment, and an extendable mine conveyor system are utilized in a five-part mining cycle. A modular concept modifies the room and pillar system to optimize ventilation. The limestone is calcined in three 5.18 x 61.87 m (17 x 203 ft) KVS rotary kilns with a design capacity of 909 mt (1000 tons) per day of lime per kiln. The kilns are coal fired and equipped with preheaters. Lime storage is provided by three 57 m (186 ft) high concrete silos with a combined capacity of 40 909 mt.

Jan 1, 1976

By D. G. Mickle, H. L. Hartman

Hydraulic filling was probably first used as a means of ground support in 1864 in an anthracite mine at Shenandoah, Pa. In the nearly 100 years since that time it has gained widespread acceptance, but surprisingly little study has been made of the basic features of the process. The investigations that have been made primarily concern the design of preparation processes and transportation systems, while little attention has been paid to ensuring that the fill does its job adequately after placement. Both permeability and compressibility of fills have been studied in the laboratories of the Department of Mining at The Pennsylvania State University under the sponsorship of the Mineral Conservation Section, formed to promote efficient utilization of the state's resources. Results of these studies form the basis of this article.

Jan 11, 1961

FRANCIS T. OMENS, ? Watsontown, Pa. (written discussion§).-In the second paragraph, Dr. Thwing mentions the various stages through which clay ware. must pass but he does not analyze the third stage, oxidation, suffficiently. There are two elements to dispose of in a great many, of the shales that must he burned; these elements are carbon and sulfur. Dr. Thwing speaks' of the carbon, but intimates that it is safe to have a temperature of -800° C., which we find to be rather dangerous on a great tiffany shales. With. one shale that we handle, we cannot go above 535° C. until we have passed this particular stage. At 800° C. the sulfur will begin-to pass off and it is very necessary that plenty of air be ad-

Jan 11, 1919

By Glenn A. Marsh, George Bernard

It is often assumed that aerated oil field brines which are to be injected underground contain dissolved oxygen in amounts which will cause appreciable corrosion. Through the use of a new portable dissolved oxygen meter, accurate determinations were made at three brine conditioning plants. At two older plants, dissolved oxygen concentration in the final treated brine was found to he almost zero In spite of aeration during the conditioning process. At a new plant, dissolved oxygen was initially present but disappeared soon after the brine was "inoculated" with oxygen-free brine from one of the other plants. Corrosion tests at the two older plants have substantiated predictions that the brines would lint be corrosive. These results show that mechanical deaeration may not always be required in brine treating plants. INTRODUCTION The present work was undertaken to add to our knowledge of aeration and deaeration of oil field brines in brine conditioning plants. It is commonly assumed that brines which are exposed to the air soon become more or less saturated with dissolved oxygen. Since oxygen-containing brines are known to be corrosive, precautions are often taken to keep air out of brine through the use of closed systems or mechanical deaeration. The study of oxygen in brine has been seriously hampered in the past because of the lack of a suitable analytical tool. The standard Winkler method for the determination of dis-solved oxygen is satisfactory for use in fresh water, but not in many oil field brines. Corrections have to be made for a number of reducing substances such as ferrous iron and hydrogen sulfide which are commonly present in natural brines. Very often the correction factors are much greater in magnitude than the amounts of oxygen which are to be determined, and consequently erroneous results are obtained. Also. erratic Winkler data are obtained when appreciable concentrations of calcium and magnesium salts are present. The first step in carrying out a systematic study involved designing a portable dissolved oxygen apparatus which would operate in natural brines. Subsequently, this apparatus was used in three brine conditioning plants. Dissolved oxygen data obtained here, and certain corrosion rate data, illustrate the interesting behavior of oxygen in these oil field brines. APPARATUS A portable dissolved oxygen meter described in detail elsewhere,' was developed specifically for use with oil field brines. It is a polarographic apparatus employing a small rotating platinum electrode (cathode) and calomel reference electrode (anode). A potential of 0.7 volts is applied across the electrodes while they are immersed in the brine to be tested. 4References given at end of paper.

Jan 1, 1952

By Charles Bohdanowicz

Production of crude in 1937 decreased (Tables 1 and 5) by about 2 per cent, while gas production for that period increased by about 6 per cent after a slight decrease in 1936 (0.4 per cent).' As in preceding years, drilling operations were confined principally to extensions of old oil fields in the Jaslo district (fields 1 and 7) and to some extent to such extensions in the Stanislawbw district (field 27). Deepening of old wells to horizons reached more recently by new wells gave on the average better results per well than those attained by new wells (Table 3). Reserves of proved lands have increased some by new oil fields discovered, Targowiska (field 8) and Czarna (field 19) both of which, however, have only small production. The Daszawa gas field (field 25) has not been extended, but two new gas fields were located instead— Opary, distant 25 km. (151/2 miles) northwest of Daszawa, Balicze at 12 km. (7 1/4 miles) southeast of Daszawa, and Kalusz (TESP Company exploiting potassium salts) in the vicinity of the town of that name (field 33). Drilling upon the gas area near Tarnbw and Debica, while gas-bearing sandstone had been found at depths of from 300 to 512 meters (984 to 1680 ft.) (Zdziary No. 2) and at 220 m. (722 ft.) [pressure 11 atmospheres, flow 24 cu. m. per min. (847 cu. ft.)] (Przyborbw No. l), has not as yet ascertained horizons qualified for permanent exploitation. The exploring well near Kos6w remained for the last seven months at the depth of 1420 m. because of the collapse of rotary drilling pipe. Below the 300-m. level no gas sands have been encountered at this well. Gas Reserves In connection with the broad plan of developing industrially the sector of Poland lying between the Vistula and the San Rivers, and extending farther north as far as the city of Radom, there arose the necessity of a more accurate calculation of gas reserves for the fields of

Jan 1, 1938

By Albert Ladd Colby

PAGE I. Introduction,...........577 11. PRocess of Manufacture. 1. American Specifications. 2. Foreign Specifications, . ......... 580 III. Chemical Properties. I. Chemical Composition: (a) American Specifications ; (b) Foreign Specifications. 2. Chemical Analysis: (a) American Specifications ; (b) Foreign Specifications ; (c) Number of Analyses Required ; (d) Sample for Analysis ; (e) Check-Analyses Impracticable ; (f) Rejection Solely on Variation in Com-' position,............581 IV. Physical Properties. 1. Drop-Test and Drop-Testing Hachine: (a) American Specifications ; (b) Foreign Specifications ; (c) Limits in Deflection. 2. Tensile Test: (a) American Specifications; (b) Foreign Specifications ; (c) Test-Pieces are not Representative ; (d) Specified Tensile Strength is Affected by the Section ; (e) BpeciBed Tensile Strength is Often Inconsistent with Specified Chemistry ; (f) Specified Tensile Strength is Often Inconsistent with Specified Elongation ; (g) Amount of Tensile Testing Required is Excessive ; (11) Conclusions. 3. Dead-Weight Test: (a) American Specifications; (b) Foreign Specifications; (c) Number of Tests Specified. 4. Bending-Test: ((1) American Specifications ; (b) Foreign Specifications,..........589 V. Section. 1. American Specifications. 2. Foreign Specifications: (a) Templets ; (b) Sample Piece of Rail; (c) Allowable Variation from Templet,...........601 VI. Weight. 1. American Specifications. 2. Foreign Specifications,. . 603 VII. Length. 1. American Specifications. 2. Foreign Specifications, . . 604 VIII. Drilling. 1. American Specifications. 2. Foreign Specifications, . 604 IX. Finish. 1. American Specifications. 2. Foreign Specifications, . . 50.5 X. Branding. 1. American Specifications. 2. Foreign Specifications : (a) Data to be Rolled in Raised Letters on Web of Rail ; (b) Marking of the Blow-Number on Each Rail; (c) Additional Marking and Painting of Rails,........605 XI. Inspection. 1. American Specifications. 2. Foreign Specifications: (a) Prior Notice of Rolling; (b) Free Access to the Works ; (c) Cost of Inspection, Analyses and Tests to be Borne by the Manufacturer ; (d) Rails after Inspection by Manufacturer to be Sorted into Lots Prior to Inspection by the Engineer ; (e) Disposition of Rejected

Jan 1, 1907