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By Howard S. Bryant

Kansas maintained its fourth position on the list of all oil-producing states, for the ninth consecutive year. Total crude-oil production during 1935, as reported by the Oil & Gas Journal, was 53,364,446 bbl. on 97 per rent tank table calculations. This represented an increase of 17 per cent over the production in 1934, which had been the all-time peak of production in Kansas up to that time. Many of the 51 new discoveries of the year, listed in Table 2, did not have a pipe line outlet until about January, 1936; therefore did not contribute to the 1935 production of the state. The potential of all wells in Kansas at the end of the year was 998,-000 bbl. per day, and the daily allowable was 143,000 bbl. per day, showing proration to the extent of 14 per cent of capacity, under the rules of the State Corporation Commission. Several important new pipe lines were built into western Kansas by extending older lines from east to northwest, providing additional outlets for new crude-oil production, and increasing the service facilities from the older oil fields. The crude-oil price level remained unchanged throughout 1935 as it did in 1934, the price of Kansas 36" gravity crude being quoted at $1 per barrel. However, on Jan. 9, 1936, the price of this gravity oil was raised to $1.10 per barrel. Following the trend of the past several years, drilling activity was largely in western Kansas, and showed a still farther westward push from last year. A relatively high percentage of successful wildcat wells at a relatively shallow drilling depth, combined with the expiration of leased acreage assembled before the depression, caused the rapid exploration and development campaign, begun in 1934, to continue. This has caused the opening of more new fields in 1935 than during any previous year in the history of oil production in Kansas. A summary of the results of drilling in western Kansas is given in Table 2. Eastern Kansas had considerable drilling, showed six new fields or extensions of oil fields, but in the limited space of this paper such developments cannot be described.

Jan 1, 1936

By C. F. Jackson

THE work of, the Mining Methods Committee is now well under way. Following discussions previous to and during the February meeting, an Outline for Papers on Mining Methods was prepared, and over a thousand copies have now been distributed to committee men, to section secretaries and to members who have indicated any interest in the subject. The objective of the committee is to prepare a symposium on mining methods which will be of real practical value to the operator and engineer in the solution of every-day mining problems. It is planned to cover the entire field of mining in such a way that the different branches of mining, such as coal and ore (iron, copper, lead, zinc and precious metal) can benefit from the experience of the others at points where they have problems in common.. It is realized fully that each of these branches of mining possesses its own peculiar problems, but at the same time, there are prob-lems in connection with each, where the experience in others should be of value. The committee proposes to proceed along the following lines: 1. To present a general classification of mining methods, showing their inter-relationship, and at the same time .provide a common language for the discussion of mining methods and a nomenclature that will have the same meaning wherever used. A com-plete set of illustrations will accompany the classi-fication to make clear the terminology adopted and to show graphically the inter-relationship of methods. 2. To show the relationship between the physical characteristic of the deposit, the economic consider-ations and the. mining method., It is not proposed to treat this subject as a mere academic problem, but to secure reports from every mining company of impor-tance in this country, which will show what methods or modifications and combinations of methods have actually been applied and the physical conditions and economic considerations which have led to the adoption of these methods in each case. The Mining Methods Committee has drawn up an Outline for Papers on Mining Methods to be distributed among mining engineers and operators, giving in detail the information desired. This outline is the result of several months of careful thought and is a composite of the suggestions of many engineers and mining company officials from all parts of the United States.

Jan 7, 1922

By C. J. Rosa, W. C. Hagel

An attempt is made to determine the diffusion coefficients of oxygen ions in hypostoichiometric zirconium oxide. A phenomenological theory is developed for three-phase, unidirectional volume diffusion of a gaseous species from a planar source. Knowledge about oxygen diffusion in a and ß zirconium and experimentally measured rates of movements of interfaces permit the evaluation of oxygen ion diffusivi-ties in ZrO2-x. The results conform to the relationship: sq cm per sec, for the temperature range of 875" to 1050° C. DIFFUSION coefficients of oxygen ions in stoichio-metric oxides have been studied by many investigators. The obtained results not only supplement the knowledge about the lattice-defect structures of oxides and conduction mechanisms but also provide information of technological importance. Rate processes such as oxide sintering, high-temperature creep deformation, and oxidation of metals and their alloys are directly dependent on diffusion phenomena. Unfortunately, diffusion coefficients obtained from studies on stoichio-metric oxides cannot be treated without restraints when applied to oxidation kinetics, if precise evaluations of oxidation rates are desired. Oxides formed on metals are usually nonstoichiometric and exhibit nonuniform distribution of either cation or anion vacancies across their thicknesses. Debuigne and Lehr1 extended Danckwerts'2 mathematical analyses and furnished a semitheoretical treatment for evaluating oxygen diffusion coefficients in zirconium oxide in terms of weight gain measurements during oxidation of zirconium in the temperature range 400° to 850°C. Their calculations are based on theoretical partitioning3 of the total amount of oxygen between a zirconium and its oxide phase. An inherent discrepancy appears to continue throughout their calculations. The amount of oxygen confined to the oxide phase should be corrected by multiplying the calculated oxide thickness by the inverse of Pilling-Bedworth ratio, if expansion of zirconium dioxide is taken into account. The purpose of the present investigation is to provide a new semitheoretical treatment for evaluating diffusion coefficients of moving species in hypostoichiometric oxide. The analyses are relevant to unidirectional volume diffusion. Although the presented method is quite general, its applicability will be discussed in terms of kinetic measurements from oxidation of zirconium at temperatures above the a/ß transition, for reasons stated in the later part of this paper. EXPERIMENTAL Pure, 99.93 wt pct, zirconium samples of approximately 2 by 1 by 0.35 cm were exposed to oxygen for various times at four temperature levels: 875°, 950°, 1000°, and 1050°C. High-purity, better than 99.9 vol pct oxygen was passed through a cold trap and columns containing anhydrous CaSO4 to remove residual water vapor. Before exposing to oxygen at a pressure of 500 Torr, specimens were subjected to wet abrasion on 200- through 600-grit Sic papers and polished with 1—p diamond dust. Prior to oxidizing, all zirconium samples were vacuum-annealed at 10-6 mm Hg for about 15 min at the test temperature. The temperature variation across the uniform heat zone was ±2°C from the preset value. Final polishing, for phase thicknesses measurements, was performed by using 8- and 1-p diamond dust and followed by vibrator polishing with 0.05-µ ? Al2O3 solution. Measurements of phase thicknesses were made by projection on a metallographic viewing screen. Conventional powder X-ray analyses for the oxide were employed. RESULTS Fig. 1 is an example of the cross section of oxidized zirconium. Designations of phases given below this figure are the same as those used in the three-phase diffusion system represented by Fig. 5 in the following section. Zirconium oxidized for longer exposure times showed two types of oxides: white oxide at the surface and an underlaying layer of gray oxide. X-ray powder patterns of these oxides at room tern-

Jan 1, 1969

By J. L. Wyatt

THE smelting of ilmenite to produce a slag rich in titanium, with pig-iron as a byproduct, introduces new concepts in electric smelting metallurgy. Titanium slags are characterized by low electrical resistance, thereby requiring a different type of electric furnace operation, and power supply sources substantially different from those encountered in normal steel melting and siliceous ore smelting furnaces. This paper describes special apparatus for determining specific electrical resistivity of titanium slags, and reports the values obtained on slags encountered in the process of smelting ilmenite ores. In an induction furnace under conditions approximating normal furnacing operation, 25 general heats and 6 special standardization and comparison heats were run. Results indicate relatively low resistivity. Resistivity depends primarily on slag composition, and, to a lesser degree, on temperature. During the summer of 1947 a cooperative project between the National Lead Co. and the Bureau of Mines was conducted at Boulder City, Nevada, in the Electrometallurgical Laboratories of the Bureau. The project involved smelting of ilmenite ores in electric furnaces, and has been reported in detail.' The author participated as a member of the staff of the National Lead Co. during the entire campaign. One outstanding characteristic of the titaniferous slags, their apparently excellent and variable electrical conductivity, was considered sufficiently important to warrant further study. Although little electric smelting of iron ores has been done in the United States, a certain amount of information is available for comparative purposes. Personal experience in smelting siliceous iron ores in electric furnaces furnished further information for comparison. In general, silicate slags are relatively poor conductors of electricity. Current flow during smelting operations may be maintained through a floating layer of coke on top of the slag bath, or through a bath of molten iron, beneath the slag. Silicate slags are not sufficiently conductive to furnish a path for current passage when normal furnace voltages are used. Experimental smelting of a silicate iron ore was undertaken for comparative purposes. A fluid melt was not obtained until the FeO content was reduced to 15 pct. The resistivity increased as the FeO content decreased, FeO compounds being the most conductive of the various oxides in such a normal slag system. The converse appears to be true in slags containing large percentages of TiO2. It has been found that titanium slags become molten with FeO percentages in excess of 30 pct, and that the conductivity becomes generally better as the FeO con-tent of the slag diminishes. This phenomenon was demonstrated in the furnacing operations at Boulder City. During the initial smelting period furnace electrodes could be held immersed several inches in the slag, with tap selectors set for a no-load voltage of 70 v. As the FeO content decreased, the furnace electrodes would "walk up," until at one point in the process the tips would break the surface and arc on top of the slag. This was undesirable since direct arcing caused losses of important flux additions. The slag compositions under study at that time were such that losses due to surface arcing sometimes caused viscous slags to be formed. Forcing the electrodes into the slag bath by manual control to prevent surface arcing resulted in excessive power input and lack of control. Suitable low voltages were not available. Measurement of the electrical resistivity of titanium slags at various operating temperatures and slag compositions was undertaken. It was believed that this information would be of use in the design of electric furnaces suitable for smelting ilmenite, with voltages, electrode sizes, and electrode spacing adapted specifically to titanium slags.

Jan 1, 1951

By Robert F. Mehl, Edward L. McCandless

Oriented overgrowths and intergrowths among both metallic and nonmetallic substances have been recognized and studied for well over a century. The work of Widmanstätten in 1808 on the geometrical structure in meteorites, a structure known by his name, demonstrated that oriented intergrowths can occur in purely metallic systems. This fact led to much of the early microscopic study of alloys, contributing greatly to the advance of physical metallurgy. The problem has been attacked again in recent years in a comprehensive fashion, with the object of discovering what atomic movements may occur during phase changes in alloy systems. Much of this work has appeared in the A.I.M.E. Transactions in a series of papers published by Mehl and coworkers beginning in 19311. Although many aspects of this general problem remain unsolved, it may be said that the orientation of a new phase forming by precipitation from solid solution or by transformation invariably bears a unique relationship to the orientation of the phase from which it formed, and that similarity in atomic patterns on atomic planes in the two phases play an important part in determining the orientation relationship. Analogous orientation relationships exist in oriented intergrowths in nonmetallic systems—mineral or inorganic. In 1827 Haidinger2 discovered natural intergrowths of hematite and magnetite, and demonstrated that the rough form of the magnetite octahedrons was delineated by small crystals of hematite, of which the basal (00.1) planes lay parallel to the octahedral cleavage planes of the magnetite. The description of this orientation relationship was later completed by von Rath3, who showed that the edge (00.1): (10.1) in hematite lies normal to the [Ill]

Jan 1, 1937

By C. R. Austin

In a recent paper1 the authors presented information on a refinement of the Rohn type of creep test with data on pure iron that exemplified the behavior of the apparatus. The present paper extends that work to nickel and cobalt and to the examination of the comparative high-temperature properties of two widely used commercial alloys. Careful attention has been given to the effect of plastic deformation in decreasing creep rate, using the elementary metals iron, nickel and cobalt for purposes of analysis. In any endeavor to develop new materials for high-temperature service one soon encounters a real problem as to the sort of test to be employed in evaluating the commercial possibilities of the alloys. At one time it was considered satisfactory to determine the tensile strengths at elevated temperatures and to use these values as a criterion for the commercial application of the alloys. More recently the proportional limit has been used as a means of classification. Data obtained from a form of bend test have also shown promise as providing a "merit index" of high-temperature serviceability.= Koerber and Pomp3 state that since the influence of testing time is small, the high-temperature yield point of steel furnishes sufficiently reliable and concordant values up to about 350" C. (and a maximum of 450" C. for alloy steels) to serve as a suitable basis for comparison evaluations of materials and for judging permissible stresses. Koerber and Pomp consider, however, that above these temperatures creep limit must be substituted for the high-temperature yield point as the all-important characteristic of the material. Whatever may be their definition of

Jan 1, 1934

By John E. Conley, John A. Ruppert

LIGHTWEIGHT aggregates have been in use for many years in the United States but are now receiving more and more attention by manufacturers and users of concrete shapes. These shapes comprise building blocks, special forms, such as door sills, lintels, floor slabs, and beams. Lightweight aggregate also is adapted for monolithic construction. The increased building activity since termination of the war, together with the widespread shortage of cinders resulting from a general trend toward the use of oil and pulverized-coal fuels, has aggravated the situation. In some localities? new producers of lightweight aggregates have been stimulated to increased efforts to supply the demand. In addition, various estab- lishments of the United States Government have recently given attention to this problem. The National Bureau of Standards, in the Commerce Department, and the Bureau of Reclamation, in the Interior Department, have completed a series of tests on concretes made from some of the available commercial aggregates in order to evaluate their qualities. The tests have been made to focus attention on the desirable properties of good aggregates. This work was done at the request of the Technical Office of the National Housing Agency and Housing and Home Finance Agency. Some time previously, the former office had conducted a survey of the locations where lightweight aggregates are produced.' A study of this information discloses that the producing centers are widespread and that certain areas, notably the region east of the Mississippi River and especially the southeastern states in the sections along the Atlantic Coast, have only a limited number of such plants. The situation has been alleviated to some extent with new plants having been erected near Richmond, Va., and Lansford, Pa. Experiment Stations of the Federal Bureau of Mines at Tuscaloosa, Ala., Norris, Tenn., and College Park, Md., have investigated types and sources of potential raw materials such as clays, shales, and slates, as well as methods and procedures for utilizing these materials for their conversion into aggregates, and have published the data as a Bureau of Mines report.' Structural Uses of Lightweight Aggregates: Production of masonry blocks in the United States has averaged close to a billion units a year for the past three years, and of these it is estimated that more than 40 pct consisted of the lightweight type. It is anticipated that the future will witness an increase in this percentage in view of the superior insulating properties, decrease in dead weight, and ease of handling, transporting, and laying units of this type. Lightweight aggregates are used extensively in multistoried buildings in which the weight of the walls and floors is carried by a structural steel framework. The substitution of a lightweight concrete for normal concrete in a building of this type has brought about in many instances some or all of the following advantages:

Jan 1, 1951

By John A. Ruppert, John E. Conley

LIGHTWEIGHT aggregates have been in use for many years in the United States but are now receiving more and more attention by manufacturers and users of concrete shapes. These shapes comprise building blocks, special forms, such as door sills, lintels, floor slabs, and beams. Lightweight aggregate also is adapted for monolithic construction. The increased building activity since termination of the war, together with the widespread shortage of cinders resulting from a general trend toward the use of oil and pulverized-coal fuels, has aggravated the situation. In some localities? new producers of lightweight aggregates have been stimulated to increased efforts to supply the demand. In addition, various estab- lishments of the United States Government have recently given attention to this problem. The National Bureau of Standards, in the Commerce Department, and the Bureau of Reclamation, in the Interior Department, have completed a series of tests on concretes made from some of the available commercial aggregates in order to evaluate their qualities. The tests have been made to focus attention on the desirable properties of good aggregates. This work was done at the request of the Technical Office of the National Housing Agency and Housing and Home Finance Agency. Some time previously, the former office had conducted a survey of the locations where lightweight aggregates are produced.' A study of this information discloses that the producing centers are widespread and that certain areas, notably the region east of the Mississippi River and especially the southeastern states in the sections along the Atlantic Coast, have only a limited number of such plants. The situation has been alleviated to some extent with new plants having been erected near Richmond, Va., and Lansford, Pa. Experiment Stations of the Federal Bureau of Mines at Tuscaloosa, Ala., Norris, Tenn., and College Park, Md., have investigated types and sources of potential raw materials such as clays, shales, and slates, as well as methods and procedures for utilizing these materials for their conversion into aggregates, and have published the data as a Bureau of Mines report.' Structural Uses of Lightweight Aggregates: Production of masonry blocks in the United States has averaged close to a billion units a year for the past three years, and of these it is estimated that more than 40 pct consisted of the lightweight type. It is anticipated that the future will witness an increase in this percentage in view of the superior insulating properties, decrease in dead weight, and ease of handling, transporting, and laying units of this type. Lightweight aggregates are used extensively in multistoried buildings in which the weight of the walls and floors is carried by a structural steel framework. The substitution of a lightweight concrete for normal concrete in a building of this type has brought about in many instances some or all of the following advantages:

Jan 1, 1951

By W Lindlief, Cyril Stanley Smith

Several investigators, mainly concerned with the mechanical properties of the alloys, have studied the so-called aluminum bronzes after various quenching and reheating treatments. Of these works, perhaps the most complete is that of Bouldoires, who studied changes of length, electrical conductivity, thermoelectric force, hardness and micro-structure on tempering quenched alloys containing 5 to 20 per cent of aluminum, although the work of Carpenter and Edwards,² Curry13 Greenwood,4 Braesco,5 Matsuda,67 Grard8 and others has added much to our knowledge of the changes occurring during tempering. The so-called acicular ß decomposes on tempering at temperatures between 350" C. and the eutectoid, giving rise to a Widmanstätten structure of a needles in a matrix of 6 or fine a + 6, associated with an increase in hardness and almost complete loss of ductility. Matsuda studied the eutectoid transformation by means of dilatation and electrical conductivity measurements during cooling at different rates. He found that on cooling at the rate of 10" C. per minute there was a decrease in electrical resistance and in length instead of the usual increase which occurred with slow rates of cooling. On tempering the rapidly cooled samples, the increase commenced at about 400" C. and at 520" C. the resistance and length had reached the equilibrium values. These peculiarities he accounted for as being due to a transitional phase ß' being formed, ß' having an electrical resistance and volume less than either ß or a + 6. Obinata9 published some electrical conductivity curves for copper-aluminum alloys showing a double break at the eutectoid temperature,

Jan 1, 1933

By Gustav S. Preller, A. M. Gaudin

For the past 20 years it has been generally accepted that the flotation process is made possible as a result of the action of certain chemical substances on the surface of the mineral particles. In fact, it has been suspected, but never demonstrated, that this action produces on the mineral particles a layer of chemosorbed ions that is of the order of magnitude of a monolayer; that is, of a layer one ion deep. It is the purpose of this paper to present certain initial results on the relationship of mineral surface area and collecting-agent requirements. Up to about eight years ago, all considerations involving the surface area of finely divided solids were limited by the fact that there was not in existence any general method for determining the extent of such surfaces, especially on mixed materials. However, the method invented by Brunauer, Emmett and Teller1 has changed the situation by providing a general procedure (BET method). This procedure has already been applied to mineral dressing problems2-4 and has now received confirmation as to accuracy by an entirely independent method.' This confirmatory or "absolute" method uses a very tedious calorimetric procedure and is not suitable for routine determinations; but still another method6 now is available to relate the results obtained by the BET method to those obtained calorimetrically. This Harkins-Jura method has the advantage that it does not require an assumption concerning the parking area per molecule of adsorbate (nitrogen). In the original work by Brunauer, Emmett and Teller the parking area per nitrogen molecule was calculated to be either 13.8?2 or 16.2?2. according as the nitrogen was assumed to be closely packed as in crystalline nitrogen or loosely packed as in liquid nitrogen. The initial experimental work from this laboratory2 supported the 13.8?2. figure; that work was done on glass spheres of measurable geometric area and it was based on the assumption that the glass spheres were truly smooth; any deviation from this assumption would, of course, have made the calculated parking area higher. Harkins and Jura's results suggest that the parking area is not the same for all substrata; furthermore, the average of the 87 measurements cited indicates a "preferred" parking area for the nitrogen molecule of about 15.2?2., with extreme values at 13.7 and 16.9?2. The average of 21 determinations made in connection with this study7 gave a parking area of 14.3 ± 0.27?². In view of this result and of the Harkins and Jura

Jan 1, 1947

By Gustav S. Preller, A. M. Gaudin

For the past 20 years it has been generally accepted that the flotation process is made possible as a result of the action of certain chemical substances on the surface of the mineral particles. In fact, it has been suspected, but never demonstrated, that this action produces on the mineral particles a layer of chemosorbed ions that is of the order of magnitude of a monolayer; that is, of a layer one ion deep. It is the purpose of this paper to present certain initial results on the relationship of mineral surface area and collecting-agent requirements. Up to about eight years ago, all considerations involving the surface area of finely divided solids were limited by the fact that there was not in existence any general method for determining the extent of such surfaces, especially on mixed materials. However, the method invented by Brunauer, Emmett and Teller1 has changed the situation by providing a general procedure (BET method). This procedure has already been applied to mineral dressing problems2-4 and has now received confirmation as to accuracy by an entirely independent method.' This confirmatory or "absolute" method uses a very tedious calorimetric procedure and is not suitable for routine determinations; but still another method6 now is available to relate the results obtained by the BET method to those obtained calorimetrically. This Harkins-Jura method has the advantage that it does not require an assumption concerning the parking area per molecule of adsorbate (nitrogen). In the original work by Brunauer, Emmett and Teller the parking area per nitrogen molecule was calculated to be either 13.8?2 or 16.2?2. according as the nitrogen was assumed to be closely packed as in crystalline nitrogen or loosely packed as in liquid nitrogen. The initial experimental work from this laboratory2 supported the 13.8?2. figure; that work was done on glass spheres of measurable geometric area and it was based on the assumption that the glass spheres were truly smooth; any deviation from this assumption would, of course, have made the calculated parking area higher. Harkins and Jura's results suggest that the parking area is not the same for all substrata; furthermore, the average of the 87 measurements cited indicates a "preferred" parking area for the nitrogen molecule of about 15.2?2., with extreme values at 13.7 and 16.9?2. The average of 21 determinations made in connection with this study7 gave a parking area of 14.3 ± 0.27?². In view of this result and of the Harkins and Jura

Jan 1, 1947

By Paul M. Tyler

Higher freight rates and better methods of beneficiation now may make it more economical to open inferior deposits closer to a glass factory than to work higher-grade deposits farther away. Nature of impurities and special treatments as well as common practice of sulphuric acid leaching are described. HISTORICAL concepts of the economics of the glass-sand industry are changing rapidly. The greatly expanded demand for glass containers combined with higher freight rates on raw materials and manufactured products have induced a migration of glass factories toward densely populated centers and the creation of new standards of place value for substandard sand deposits. This migration has been facilitated by the construction of pipelines to bring cheaper natural gas and liquid fuel to large cities and may be further speeded by the adoption of modern mineral dressing methods to permit economical utilization of local raw materials. Our national resources of naturally high-grade silica sand are abundant, but most of the best deposits are situated so far from large centers of population that it now costs $3.00 to $5.00 a ton to carry the sand from the mine to the optimum site for a factory making beverage bottles, scientific and electrical glassware, and miscellaneous blown and pressed ware for local markets. It follows that on the basis of freight savings alone it may be economical to use material from inferior deposits closer to the factory even though the f.O.b. cost of mining and treatment may be much higher than at a higher grade deposit farther away. Particle-size distribution is a feature of glass-sand specifications. As long as glassmakers insisted upon having their sand principally coarser than 100-mesh, any material was automatically excluded from consideration that could not be purified without fine grinding or other drastic treatment which greatly reduces the size of the quartz grains. However, re- cent large-scale tests in Norway' showed that finely-crushed quartz used in a soda-lime-silica glass batch caused it to melt and become refined appreciably faster than when ordinary coarse (Belgian) sand was employed. Dust losses were negligible. Since the pre-war cost of sand was only 3 pct of the manufacturing cost of the glass, it was deemed economical to pay twice as much for crushed quartz because of the saving in wear and tear on the furnace walls. In the author's unverified opinion, sand ranging in size between 150 and 400-mesh would probably be superior to that in the more usual range of 20 to 100-mesh. Former objections to fine sand (other than dust) were doubtless fostered by the natural concentration of impurities in the finer sizes. Ordinarily the most objectionable, as well as the commonest, impurity from the standpoint of the manufacturer of any but the cheaper qualities of colored glass is iron. No natural sands are really pure silica. Even water-clear quartz crystals are likely to contain impurities in the form of solid solution as well as inclusions which cannot be eliminated except by chemical treatment that will break down the silica lattice. Pure white pegmatite quartz will usually analyze 0.01 pct or more of iron oxide, and ordinary vein quartz and the quartz grains in most

Jan 1, 1951

By Paul M. Tyler

Higher freight rates and better methods of beneficiation now may make it more economical to open inferior deposits closer to a glass factory than to work higher-grade deposits farther away. Nature of impurities and special treatments as well as common practice of sulphuric acid leaching are described. HISTORICAL concepts of the economics of the glass-sand industry are changing rapidly. The greatly expanded demand for glass containers combined with higher freight rates on raw materials and manufactured products have induced a migration of glass factories toward densely populated centers and the creation of new standards of place value for substandard sand deposits. This migration has been facilitated by the construction of pipelines to bring cheaper natural gas and liquid fuel to large cities and may be further speeded by the adoption of modern mineral dressing methods to permit economical utilization of local raw materials. Our national resources of naturally high-grade silica sand are abundant, but most of the best deposits are situated so far from large centers of population that it now costs $3.00 to $5.00 a ton to carry the sand from the mine to the optimum site for a factory making beverage bottles, scientific and electrical glassware, and miscellaneous blown and pressed ware for local markets. It follows that on the basis of freight savings alone it may be economical to use material from inferior deposits closer to the factory even though the f.O.b. cost of mining and treatment may be much higher than at a higher grade deposit farther away. Particle-size distribution is a feature of glass-sand specifications. As long as glassmakers insisted upon having their sand principally coarser than 100-mesh, any material was automatically excluded from consideration that could not be purified without fine grinding or other drastic treatment which greatly reduces the size of the quartz grains. However, re- cent large-scale tests in Norway' showed that finely-crushed quartz used in a soda-lime-silica glass batch caused it to melt and become refined appreciably faster than when ordinary coarse (Belgian) sand was employed. Dust losses were negligible. Since the pre-war cost of sand was only 3 pct of the manufacturing cost of the glass, it was deemed economical to pay twice as much for crushed quartz because of the saving in wear and tear on the furnace walls. In the author's unverified opinion, sand ranging in size between 150 and 400-mesh would probably be superior to that in the more usual range of 20 to 100-mesh. Former objections to fine sand (other than dust) were doubtless fostered by the natural concentration of impurities in the finer sizes. Ordinarily the most objectionable, as well as the commonest, impurity from the standpoint of the manufacturer of any but the cheaper qualities of colored glass is iron. No natural sands are really pure silica. Even water-clear quartz crystals are likely to contain impurities in the form of solid solution as well as inclusions which cannot be eliminated except by chemical treatment that will break down the silica lattice. Pure white pegmatite quartz will usually analyze 0.01 pct or more of iron oxide, and ordinary vein quartz and the quartz grains in most

Jan 1, 1951

By Jesse Jones

1. BRINELL tests at progressively increasing temperatures are given for a representative lead-base and a representative tin-base babbitt, showing that the former has superior resistance to deformation at the working temperatures of bearings. 2. Small squares of bearing bronze, tinned and then babbitted with a representative lead-base babbitt and a representative tin-base. babbitt were subjected to compressive loading. The lead-base babbitt showed less average compression than the tin-base babbitt. Compression did not materially increase the Brinell hardness of the babbitts. 3. A process and a tool are described for giving smoother and more accurate surfaces to bearings than has heretofore been possible. The following experiments have recently been carried out in the chemical laboratory of the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. While the work is incomplete, it is described at the present time because data on the comparative merits of lead-base and tin-base babbitts are of interest in connection with the present shortage of tin.

Jan 8, 1918

By David H. Browne

The use of coal-dust fired reverberatory furnaces, or indeed of rever-beratory furnaces of any description, was for the Canadian Copper Co. a matter of necessity, and not of choice. For 20 years smelting had been done in blast furnaces alone, and with the Herreshoff furnaces used prior to 1904 there was no trouble in treating fine ores. But little flue dust was produced, and this, following the time-honored custom, was wetted down and put back with the charge. Whether the flue dust really smelted, or whether it was worn out by being chased around in a circle, was a problem that troubled no one. With the installation of modern blast furnaces and high-pressure blowing engines, in 1904, flue dust commenced to assert itself. Evidently more dust was made than could be smelted, but so many vital. problems engaged our attention at that time that this minor question was pushed to one side. In 1906, the details of blast-furnace smelting and the conversion of matte had been worked out to a satisfactory conclusion, and the ever-increasing piles of flue dust and fine ore on the stock yard demanded serious consideration. Numerous experiments in sintering, briquetting, mixing with converter slag, forming blocks of flue dust with green-ore fines and cement, and so on, were undertaken. None of these showed much promise. Our problem was still further complicated by the question of treating converter slag. The ore was basic, the slag was not needed as a furnace flux, and it was felt that under these conditions the old method of pouring slag in molds and resmelting in the blast furnace was an unnecessary expense. If the converter slag could be settled in basic-lined reverberatory furnaces, in which at the same time flue dust and green-ore fines could be smelted, two problems might thus be solved. Reverberatory practice with our ores was, however, an unknown factor. As carried on in the West, on siliceous ores and concentrates, at least 25 per cent. of fuel was required, and even this ratio depended greatly

Jan 1, 1915

By C. W. Donnelly, Louise B. Freeman, Coleman D. Hunter

It is with pride that the authors of this paper report. that during 1944 the production of petroleum in Kentucky passed its all-time peak, 9,496,985 bbl. being contributed. The delivery of natural gas, especially from eastern Kentucky, was maintained and possibly exceeded the highest deliveries of the past. To raise the production of oil and gas was not easy with inferior and worn-out equipment and the shortage of skilled labor. Reminiscent of the early days of the industry in the state, particularly in the hills of Elliott County, where mud roads often have gradients of 45º, was the replacement of worn-out trucks and tractors by oxen. Of the total 9,496,985 bbl., 17 per cent was contributed by the part of Kentucky that is east of the Cincinnati arch, as compared with the total of 7,010,776 bbl. contributed in 1943, of which 25 per cent was contributed by eastern Kentucky. This discrepancy is due to the discovery of more new fields in western Kentucky rather than to a decrease in production in the eastern fields, where the average has been maintained by reconditioning and secondary recovery of old fields and further development of new pools reported for the first time in 1943. In all, 1103 wells were known to have been drilled in the state during 1944, of which 659 were drilled in western Kentucky and 444 in eastern Kentucky. The exact number of wells drilled for any year is never known, as drilling permits are not required except 'when it is planned to drill through a workable coal seam. Of the total number of wells drilled, 459 were oil wells, 229 gas wells and 415 dry holes. The monthly production was as follows: January........................... 659,496 February.......................... 658,606 March...................... ...... 711,619 April............................. 649,926 May............................... 754,892 June.............................. 730,369 July.............................. 761,762 August............................ 878,053 September...................... 863,150 October........................... 968,732 November........................ 961,999 December........................ . 898,636 Western Kentucky In western Kentucky 352 wells were completed as oil wells with a total initial production of 47,922 bbl. of oil, the average being 136 bbl. per well. Two wells produced gas, the total initial production being 1,594,000 cu, ft. One hundred and eighteon wildcat wells were drilled, of which 107 were dry holes and 11 were oil wells. Three of the latter proved to be the discovery wells of commercial pools. Twelve new pools were discovered during 1944, none of major importance, as indicated in Table 2. The Utley pool, due to a stratigraphic trap on the flank of a closed structure, found oil in the Mcclosky at 2565 ft. in the discovery well, with initial productioil of 1000 bbl. The average daily production is now 227 bbl. from seven wells. The East Poole field, with the discovery well in the Tar Springs sandstone at 1811

Jan 1, 1945

By W. O. Borcherdt

THE 650-ton underground mill of The Empire Zinc Company of Colorado (a subsidiary of The New Jersey Zinc Co.) serves the Eagle mine at Gilman in the Battle Mountain mining district of Colorado. The topography is rough, the mine and mill being under Battle Mountain and the alit entrance in the north wall of the canyon of the Eagle River, which is here a steel) gorge. The town of Gilman stands on a shoulder of the mountain at altitude 8975 ft., above sea level, along the Pike's Peak ocean to ocean highway and contains the company office and the usual facilities of a modern mining town. The railway contact is at Belden, altitude 8370 ft., at the bottom of the gorge directly below Gilman, where the westbound track of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad is cut along the north bank and the eastbound track along the south bank of the river. A general description of the mine, mill and service facilities, with an account of the geology, character of the ore and methods of mining and milling having previously been published in a series of articles1, this paper will discuss with as little repetition as practicable the reasons for building the mill underground rather than as a conventional structure, the methods of construction employed and the experiences gained in what is apparently the pioneer plant of this type and extent.

Jan 1, 1937

By FRANK COLE

THE territory covered in this discussion includes all the states west of the Mississippi river. Agriculture is expanding each year in this section, but until recent years the application of commercial fertilizers as an aid to crop production was not practised to any great extent. The use of commercial fertilizers has increased somewhat, but is still on a small basis as compared with the tonnages used else- where in the United States. During 1928 these western states used 665,100 tons of all classes of fertilizer as compared 'with 7,933,600 tons used in the whole United States; or this western area, compromising near- ly two-thirds the land area, uses about 5 per cent of the total fertilizer. To show how large a tonnage one state may consume, North Carolina for the year 192s used 1,349,360 tons of commercial fertilizer or about twice the amount used by 22 western states.

Jan 1, 1930

By Charles R. Keyes

PAGE I. Introductory............ 140 II. Location and History...........140 III. Surface-Relief of the District....... 141 IV. General GeoloGic Features........ 142 1. Main Relationships and Map....... 142 2. Résumé of Geologic History..143 V. Geologic Formations Represented...144 1. Broader Considerations......... 144 2. Geologic Section.......... 145 3. Nomenclature.......... 146 4. El Pasan Limestones..146 5. Santa Rita Limestone.... 146 6. Silver Shales........... 147 7. Bella Shales........... 147 8. Berenda Limestone..147 9. Grande Limestone... 148 10. Lake Valley Limestone........ 148 11. Sierra Limestone.......... 149 VI. Unconformities........... 149 VII. Geologic Structure.......... 150 1. Main Characteristics......... 150 2. Folding........... 1.50 3. Faultings........... 150 4. Relations of the Eruptives...153 VIII. Geologic Relations OF the Ore-Bodies...... 154 1. Governing Factom......... 154 2. Position.......... 154 3. Relations to Foldings...155 4. Relations to Lines of Dislocation... 15.5 5. Relations to Present Surface.Relief..156 6. Relations to Eruptive Rocks...157 7. Relations to Lithologic Nature of the Rocks.... 158 IX. MINERALOGIC CHARACTER OF THE ORES...... 158 X. Origin of the Ore.Deposits..159 1. General Statement......... 159 2. Original Source of the 0re.Materials...160 3. Contact-Metamorphism of the Region... 161 4. Process of 0re.Concentration..162 5. Lowering of Ground-Water Level..162 6. Formation of Cerargyritic Ores...163 XI. Recapitulation........... 168

Jan 1, 1909

By Bailey, Lewis Newton

Bailey, Lewis Newton, Master Engineer, Senior Grade, 4th Regiment, U. S. Engineers, Headquarters Company, died of pneumonia at Camp Merritt, N. J., on Apr. 30, 1918. Baird, Louis, Lieut., Royal Field Artillery, British Army, died on the battlefield in 1915. Ballamy, John H., Capt., 103d Engineers, killed in action near Fismes, Aug. 9, 1918. Bowles, Martin F., 2d Lieut., Co. B, 355th Infantry, killed in action, Sept. 3, 1918. Burt, Andrew, died in active service, 1916. Cobeldick, William Morley, Royal Engineers, died from gas poisoning on Oct. 7, 1915. Dougall, Ralph, 4th University Co., Princess Patricia Regiment, killed in action early in the war. Evans, Alfred Winter, Lieut.-Col., New Zealand Rifle Brigade, D. S. 0., D. C. M., killed in action on Oct. 12, 1917.

Jan 3, 1919