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September steel production established a new record for a 30-day month with 9,034,000 tons. It was the highest of any month since March. Output of ingots and steel for castings was 535,000 tons more than was poured in August 1952, and 373,000 tons over the total for September 1951. Prime Minister Daniel F. Malan touched a gold button to start South Africa' a first uranium plant into production on the premises of the West Rand Consolidated Gold Mine, near Krugersdorp, Transvaal, 25 miles west of Johannesburg. Uranium oxide is being extracted from mine tailing after removal of the gold. Thirteen gold mines in the region are scheduled for uranium production. Defense Materials Procurement Agency signed an agreement-with the Bagdad Copper Corp., Bagdad. Ariz., for expansion of the firm's facilities to enable delivery of at least 27 million lb of copper a year and 91,0000 lb of molybdenite. It is said that the company will spend about E million on the expansion.

Jan 1, 1952

By M. B. Standing, D. L. Katz

Equilibrium data are reported on the composition and densities of coexisting vapor and liquid phases as a function of Pressure and temperature for four hydrocarbon systems prepared from crude oil and natural gas. The data were observed over a range of pressures from 1000 to 8220 Ib. per sq. in. and at temperatures ranging from 35' to 250°F. The compositions of the hydrocarbon systems were such that the critical temperatures of the mixtures were lower than the range of the investigation. Under these conditions, it is shown that the composition of the systems has a marked effect upon both the absolute value of the equilibrium constants and the change of the constants with pressure for the several components comprising the system. From weight-balance considerations, it has been possible to construct the partial phase diagram of a mixture of a 49.9" A.P.I. crude oil and natural gas having a gas-oil ratio of 3660 cu. ft. per barrel. Descriptions of the apparatus used, the analytical procedure, the material used, and the equilibrium measurements are included. A knowledge of the physical behavior of naturally occurring hydrocarbon mixtures is fundamental to the treatment of many problems in the production, transportation and rehing of petroleum. The recent discoveries of pools having formation pressures up to 7500 lb. per sq. in. and higher, and the development of full-scale equipment to operate at pressures of 5000 lb. per sq. in. or more have greatly increased the need for knowledge of the composition, temperature, pressure and density relationships of coexisting vapor and liquid hydrocarbon phases. The following paper presents the results of investigations upon 22 mixtures of natural gas and crude oil of known com~o~itio~ that had been brought to equilibrium under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure. Data are presented upon the densities and compositions of the coexisting vapor and liquid phases for four different systems containing hydrocarbon material having boiling points from minus 2 5S°F. to well over I000 F. The data were observed Over a pressure range from Iooo Ib. per Sq. in to 8220 lb. Per sq. in. and a temperature range from 35' to 2 50°F. The accepted method of computing the physical relationship between two coexisting phases of a hydrocarbon mixture is by use of the "equilibrium constant" K as proposed by Souders, Selheimer, and Brown. definition,

Jan 1, 1944

By M. B. Standing, D. L. Katz

Equilibrium data are reported on the composition and densities of coexisting vapor and liquid phases as a function of Pressure and temperature for four hydrocarbon systems prepared from crude oil and natural gas. The data were observed over a range of pressures from 1000 to 8220 Ib. per sq. in. and at temperatures ranging from 35' to 250°F. The compositions of the hydrocarbon systems were such that the critical temperatures of the mixtures were lower than the range of the investigation. Under these conditions, it is shown that the composition of the systems has a marked effect upon both the absolute value of the equilibrium constants and the change of the constants with pressure for the several components comprising the system. From weight-balance considerations, it has been possible to construct the partial phase diagram of a mixture of a 49.9" A.P.I. crude oil and natural gas having a gas-oil ratio of 3660 cu. ft. per barrel. Descriptions of the apparatus used, the analytical procedure, the material used, and the equilibrium measurements are included. A knowledge of the physical behavior of naturally occurring hydrocarbon mixtures is fundamental to the treatment of many problems in the production, transportation and rehing of petroleum. The recent discoveries of pools having formation pressures up to 7500 lb. per sq. in. and higher, and the development of full-scale equipment to operate at pressures of 5000 lb. per sq. in. or more have greatly increased the need for knowledge of the composition, temperature, pressure and density relationships of coexisting vapor and liquid hydrocarbon phases. The following paper presents the results of investigations upon 22 mixtures of natural gas and crude oil of known com~o~itio~ that had been brought to equilibrium under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure. Data are presented upon the densities and compositions of the coexisting vapor and liquid phases for four different systems containing hydrocarbon material having boiling points from minus 2 5S°F. to well over I000 F. The data were observed Over a pressure range from Iooo Ib. per Sq. in to 8220 lb. Per sq. in. and a temperature range from 35' to 2 50°F. The accepted method of computing the physical relationship between two coexisting phases of a hydrocarbon mixture is by use of the "equilibrium constant" K as proposed by Souders, Selheimer, and Brown. definition,

Jan 1, 1944

By T. W. Atkins

ATHOUGH the magnesium industry in this country is about thirty years old, not until American industry began to amaze the rest of the world and confound our enemies with the extent and variety of our war production did the industry begin to come into its own. At the outset of the war, only three companies were producing and fabricating magnesium in this country. Today, about sixty companies are producing, casting, forging, extruding, rolling, and stamping this lightweight champion of metals. Experience in alloying, processing. and fabricating the metal gained during the war years is now being translated into hundreds of civilian peacetime applications. In no sense should magnesium be considered as a substitute for other metals. It has come into popular favor because If many unique properties in addition to is being the lightest known structural metal. These attributes are toughness, igidity, corrosion-resistance, and the ease with which it can be machined and worked. Magnesium is the third most abundant element in nature. Sea water, magnesite,

Jan 1, 1946

By R. W. Raymond

THE absence of a convenient glossary of terns connected with mining and metallurgy has long been felt by the general public. It is to meet this want, not to furnish a technical manual for experts, that the following glossary has been prepared. It originated in an attempt on my part to revise for publication the manuscript of a compilation prepared from the appendix of Yale's work on Mining Titles and one or two other sources, to serve as an appendix to a new work on mining law, about to be published by Mr. H. N. Copp, of Washington, D. C. This revision soon assumed, contrary to my original intention, the proportions of a reconstruction ; and with the consent of Mr. Copp, and for the purpose of receiving from my fellow-members valuable aid, I presented my still incomplete work as a paper at the Lake Superior meeting of the Institute, inviting from any quarter suggestions of new terms or better definitions to be incorporated in the glossary before its final publication. This invitation was so widely and generously responded to, that I cannot undertake to make in this place' individual acknowledgments to those members of the Institute, and professional colleagues outside of it, who hays favored me with ' assistance and advice. The labor bestowed upon this paper since its presentation, at the Lake Superior meeting has considerably exceeded that of its first preparation, as

Jan 1, 1881

By J. D. Prater, H. R. Spedden, E. E. Malouf

With the expansion of copper leaching of the various mine wastes at the Kennecott properties, additional copper recovery facilities have been required. A research and development program has been pursued to determine a suitable economic approach to the processing of the additional leach solutions contemplated. lnvestigations on laboratory and pilot plant scales covered electrowinning, solvent extraction, launder and vat type cells, activated launders, precipitation drums, and precipitation cones. This paper contains information on the development and use of a new precipitation-cone-type copper recovery plant, which provides many advantages over older systems. The application of research findings to the old art of leaching copper from copper-bearing mine waste has resulted in a significant contribution of copper to over-all copper production. For example, at the completion of the current expansion program at the Kennecott properties in the United States, copper produced from waste dump leaching will amount to about 25% of the total production. Formerly only 2% was derived from this source. This planned expansion of copper leaching focused attention on the problem of developing more efficient methods for the recovery of copper from greatly increased volumes of copper-bearing solutions.1 The detailed investigations which have been made in laboratory pilot plant and plant tests for the recovery of copper from copper-bearing solutions have included electrowinning, solvent extraction, ion exchange and cementation with iron in launders, precipitation drums, activated launders, and precipitation cones. The results of these investigations have led to the development of a new precipitation cone-type copper recovery system providing many advantages over older methods. ELECTROWINNING OF COPPER FROM COPPER-BEARING SOLUTIONS The direct electrowinning of copper from relatively dilute solutions of copper-bearing mine water, namely solutions containing 10 to 20 lbs of copper per 1000 gal, has always been an attractive possibility.2,3 By this method, high-purity copper powder can be recovered with a power consumption of 3.5 kwh per Ib of copper. However, once the solution strength de-

Jan 1, 1967

By A. C. Watts

FOR several years, a mine in Colorado experienced considerable trouble from small fires caused by the blasting of coal. Although a well-known make of permissible powder was used, it was first thought that the powder ignited gas that might be present and that this, in turn, set fire to line brattices or to the coal. Experiments were, therefore, conducted with another make of powder, but the results convinced the superintendent of the mine, Robt. Williams, Jr., that the fires were not caused by the powder but by the high-voltage electric current used for detonating the shots. The mine "makes" gas very freely, giving off from three-fourths to a million cubic feet of methane per 24 hours. The coal is a good grade bituminous of a very free burning quality. Electric shot-firing from the outside after all men and animals were outside had been practiced for a number of years. The shooting circuit was connected with the main power circuit at the mouth of each entry. Shooting circuit switches were mounted in boxes, which were kept locked with the handle of the switch, in open position, showing through the bottom of the box. The door of the box could not be shut and locked when the shooting switch was closed. At the entrance to each room, or working place, a small switch, called the miner's switch, was placed on the shooting line. It was the duty of the miner, when entering his place at the beginning of the shift, to see that this switch was open and that it was kept open until he left the place at the end of the shift to go out of the mine. Grounded return was used for main power lines. The current was 500 volts, direct current, with 100 to 300 amp. The nearest working face was 9600 ft. from the shot-firers' switch outside the mine and the most remote working face was 2 ½ miles. The various working faces were scattered over a wide area between these two points.

Jan 9, 1925

By W. M. Weigel

SALT production in Louisiana and Texas at the present time is entirely from salt domes of the interior and coastal groups. Before and during the Civil War salt was recovered from numerous salines and salt springs by evaporation in open 'kettles. The location of these in nearly every instance was near what is now known to be a salt dome, and the source of the salt in the salines and spring waters was that in the salt core. The tops of many of the shallower domes have been subjected to erosion1. The discovery that the salt occurred as large masses of rock salt in the form of domes was made in May, 1802, at Avery Island, La., by John Marsh Avery, grandson of the original owner, John C. Marsh, who built the old salt works in 18122. The first shaft for mining was sunk on the Avery dome in 1867 by Chouteau and Price. It was 90 ft. deep, about 58 ft. being in solid salt. It was abandoned in 1870. There are three general groups or fields of salt domes; interior Louisiana in northern Louisiana, interior Texas in northeastern Texas, and the coastal domes nearer the Gulf Coast and extending from the Mississippi River to the Rio Grande. This last group contains by far the greatest number of domes. As many of the coastal domes especially are prolific producers of petroleum and a few of sulfur, their geology has been intensively studied and fully covered in the literature. The depth to the top of the salt varies from near the surface, where shallow ground waters have dissolved the salt to just below recent deposits, to several thousand feet, where the depth has been estimated only by geophysical methods. The diameter of the salt core varies from less than ½ mile to over 2 miles. Only domes where the salt is compara-tively near the surface have been developed for commercial salt. Three deeper domes, which will be described later, have recently been developed or are in process of development, as a source of brine for chemical use.

Jan 1, 1935

Total U.S. mineral production reached an estimated $17.8 billion for 1960, 4 pct above 1959 and second only to the record high of $18.1 billion established in 1957. As a group, metals achieved a rise from $1.6 billion in 1959 to $2.0 billion this year, an increase of 28 pct. Similarly the value of nonmetallic production including fuels (i.e., natural gas, petroleum, natural-gas liquids, asphalt and related bitumens, carbon dioxide. anthracite. bituminous and lignite coal, peat, and helium) rose from $15.5 billion in 1959 to approximately $15.8 billion in 1960. However, this 2 pct increase in the total value of non-metallic production was due to an increase in the value of the fuels ($11.8 billion in 1959 to $12.2 billion in 1960) which offset a drop in value of the other nonmetallic minerals ($3.7 billion in 1959 to $3.6 billion in 1960).

Jan 2, 1961

By Pedro G. Salom

I HAVE had an opportonity, within the last few months, of making a large number of physical and chemical tests of steel for boiler and ship-plate, which has been, and is now being, used principally for the United States Government cruisers, now building in Mr. John Roach's yard, at Chester, Pa. Through the courtesy of the Messrs. Houston, of the Chester Rolling Mills, I have the honor to lay before the members of the Institate the results of these tests. These results have developed some points in regard to the nature of steel, which are more or less new, and which, I hope, will prove interesting. The original specifications, as regards the manner of testing, were so inipracticable (when their severity mas taken into consideration), that the keel of the first vessel, which will be launched next month, would, had they been carried out, probably not have been laid until next year. At my suggestion, in order to simplify and expedite the immense amount of testing that had to be done, the Naval Advisory Board was induced, after considerable discussion, to alter the specifications, so as to test each heat, instead of each lot of twenty plates, but reserved the right of making the quenching-test on a piece from each ingot, after it had been rolled. This relieved us from the anxiety of having a lot of plates rejected, after they had beell rolled and sheared, by reason of the presence of one or two plates which might have been injured in heating or rolling, or which might not have been able to stand the tests; while it insured the Government in obtaining a uniform quality of steel, and prevented the temptation to introduce a half-dozen or more had plates in a lot, and run the risk of their being selected as the testplates. I give below a portion of the original specifications, as prescribed

Jan 1, 1884

By H. G. Moulton

THE INCREASING scale of mining operations over the past decade, particularly in connection with the exploitation of large bodies of comparatively low-grade copper ores, has made necessary the study of the behavior of rock under failure. When extractions of as high as 40,000 tons a day are reached in steam-shovel operations and as high as 20,000 tons per day in underground mining operations, it is evident that excavations soon become of such size that the behavior of the rock will often be dependent on fundamental principles applicable to more or less homogeneous materials under stress, rather than on weathering or local planes of weakness. In the ordinary rock excavations encountered in civil-engineering practice, such as excavations for subways, highways, railroads, etc., rock faces are not carried to depths sufficient to develop any pressures, or consequently any failures, except those due to loose masses resulting from local planes of weakness. When, however, orebodies whose tonnage is measured by hundreds of thousands are to be extracted by steam-shovel operations in open pits, it is necessary to determine if possible in advance the slopes that the sides of the pits will assume, for these slopes influence the shape of the excavations and thereby the amount of ore that may be extracted by the open-pit method. When large orebodies are mined underground at depths of 300 to 500 ft. (91 to 152 m.) by caving methods, the surface subsiding as the ore is withdrawn, it is necessary to determine in advance the outermost limits of fracture in the subsiding surface, for on the delineation of these limits depends the location of surface improvements, mills, smelters, etc. and also the location of development work, such as hoisting shafts, main haulage levels, and all other underground openings that must remain undisturbed during the period of ore extraction. Heretofore, in civil-engineering practice, it has been assumed that earth and rock behave differently in failure. For the calculation of earth

Jan 2, 1920

By B. S. Norris, Charles R. Austin

The stresses which initiate deformation processes in metals are fundamentally important in the study of the mechanical properties of metals. A point of inflection in the load-elongation curves obtained for single crystals' has been rather too readily interpreted as a true yield point, and the critical resolved shearing stress on the plane of slip taken as a material constant. Even early work showed that the stress at this point varies with rate of loading, but it has not been generally appreciated that creep tests under static loads alone are suited for determining the existence or nonexistence of a yield point.* It has now been shown by Miller that single crystals of zinc3 when loaded statically begin to yield at loads too small to measure; as a result there is no case now known, apart from that cited in the present paper, in which a true critical stress for yielding has been demonstrated for single crystals of metals. The case of iron has especial interest: the existence of an upper and lower yield point and of an elongation at the yield point in ordinary iron and steel marks this substance as unusual, though the effects have been found to a very minor degree in other metals and alloys. $ Most alloys do not show such marked phenomena when appreciable yielding begins, and accordingly modern practice is to speak of the yield strength of such materials, a stress read from the load-elongation curve after elongation has begun, rather than yield point. The special behavior of iron suggests that it is more likely that single crystals of iron should have a true yield point than other metals. The study of the mechanical properties of metals and alloys requires a determination of the crystallographic mechanism of deformation, wlletller deformation proceeds by slip, twinning, or cleavage, or a combination of these, and a determination of the stresses that induce these modes of deformation. With this information, a study of the rates of work-

Jan 1, 1938

By B. S. Norris, Charles R. Austin

The stresses which initiate deformation processes in metals are fundamentally important in the study of the mechanical properties of metals. A point of inflection in the load-elongation curves obtained for single crystals' has been rather too readily interpreted as a true yield point, and the critical resolved shearing stress on the plane of slip taken as a material constant. Even early work showed that the stress at this point varies with rate of loading, but it has not been generally appreciated that creep tests under static loads alone are suited for determining the existence or nonexistence of a yield point.* It has now been shown by Miller that single crystals of zinc3 when loaded statically begin to yield at loads too small to measure; as a result there is no case now known, apart from that cited in the present paper, in which a true critical stress for yielding has been demonstrated for single crystals of metals. The case of iron has especial interest: the existence of an upper and lower yield point and of an elongation at the yield point in ordinary iron and steel marks this substance as unusual, though the effects have been found to a very minor degree in other metals and alloys. $ Most alloys do not show such marked phenomena when appreciable yielding begins, and accordingly modern practice is to speak of the yield strength of such materials, a stress read from the load-elongation curve after elongation has begun, rather than yield point. The special behavior of iron suggests that it is more likely that single crystals of iron should have a true yield point than other metals. The study of the mechanical properties of metals and alloys requires a determination of the crystallographic mechanism of deformation, wlletller deformation proceeds by slip, twinning, or cleavage, or a combination of these, and a determination of the stresses that induce these modes of deformation. With this information, a study of the rates of work-

Jan 1, 1938

By W. M. Gray

The determination of the state of stress existing at a point in any solid body requires the determination of the six components of the stress tensor relative to a convenient set of axes. One general method of doing this in rock is to make strain or deformation measurements associated with local relief of stress in a number of boreholes penetrating a limited volume in the vicinity of the point at which the stress is to be determined. The stress is assumed to be constant throughout this volume. Leeman1 has described a number of the instruments that have been developed for making deformation or strain measurements in boreholes. Panek2 has described the application of statistical methods to the determination of the average components of ground stress from sets of measurements made in boreholes by means of deformation meters of the type developed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. In this paper attention is given initially to the strain cell developed for use on the flattened ends of boreholes by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) , South Africa. The equations required for evaluating the average components of ground stress from measurements made by means of the CSIR strain cell are derived. These equations are similar in form to those applying to measurements made by the borehole deformation meter developed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The results of an investigation of the properties of the equations are described. These results are important in the practical use of both the instruments mentioned above and any instrument based on similar principles.

Jan 1, 1968

By Hugh M. Roberts

In the spring of 1915, then a 30-year old geologist in the employ of the E. J. Longyear Co., of Minneapolis, Minn., I accompanied prospectors to ex- amine outcrops of supposed nickel ore situated a mile or two in from the shore of a lake in the Kenora district of northwestern Ontario. The deposit proved to be bog iron ore containing traces of nickel. We were stormbound there for three days, a circumstance which gave rise to a tale that was told at our fire one night. It seems that Sandy and Jock, two prospectors, were crossing the bay of a large lake in a canoe. They were bucking headwinds; the waves grew higher. Jock called out from the stern, "Sandy, can ye na pray a little." Sandy pressed his knees a little closer into the bow and, between strokes of his paddle, sought for words, which came haltingly, "Save us this time . . . Oh Lord . . . and we promise . . ." when Jock, peering through the spray sang out, "I would na commit yourself, Sandy, I think I see lond ahead."

Jan 1, 1965

By Bernhard Blumenthal

A melting process was developed by which high purity electrolytic uranium crystals can be converted into sound ingots without serious contamination. Careful preparation of the crystals, melting in a high vacuum, and directional solidification led to a metal of better than 99.993 wt pct purity. The metallographic examination showed a substantially clean metal with only residual amounts of a second phase which responded to heat treatment. The density of high purity uranium is 19.05 g per cu cm. FOR the study of the fundamental properties of uranium and its alloys, a base metal of high purity is needed, and an investigation was started at Argonne several years ago to examine various methods of preparing high purity uranium. Early success was achieved by the fused salt electrolysis process in preparing high purity metal in crystal form,' and the problem became that of melting the crystals into ingots without contamination. The electrolytic crystals contained a few ppm of heavy metals, less than 15 ppm C, and large quantities of potassium and lithium in the form of trapped fused salt electrolyte. On melting in vacuo in magnesia or urania crucibles, the metal picked up considerable quantities of carbon and some iron, copper, and silicon but lost most of the potassium and lithium. It was not metallographically clean, and much research work was necessary to determine the optimum melting conditions for minimum contamination. This work has resulted in the development of a melting procedure by which sound ingots can be prepared with only a limited contamination by carbon. In the section entitled "Melting of the Electrolytic Metal," the equipment and processes that have been developed for melting the electrolytic crystals are described in detail. The "Metallography" section is devoted to the metallography of high purity uranium, and the section "Density of High Purity Uranium" contains the first property measurement on high purity uranium—a density determination. Melting of the Electrolytic Metal Apparatus—Melting and Vacuum Equipment: Uranium may be melted in either resistance or induction-type electric furnaces. Resistance heating was found to be preferable to induction heating for melting down the electrolytic crystals, for several reasons: Although induction heating permits fast heating, this advantage cannot be utilized when crucibles with limited thermal shock resistance are used. Temperature control of induction-heated melts is poor, and the stirring effect increases the rate of contamination of the melt from the crucible, slag, or the furnace atmosphere; liquation and controlled solidification are difficult to carry out. Because of these objections, resistance heating was chosen. A 10 kw Globar resistance furnace of low heat capacity permitted uniform heating of a uranium charge to its melting point in 45 min. The furnace was insulated with a removable aluminum shield so that, after melting and removal of the shield, the furnace could be quickly cooled to room temperature. The furnace was equipped with an apparatus for directional solidification; see Fig. la. The crucible was suspended in the center of the furnace; and when the melting was complete, the crucible was slowly lowered into the cold end of the furnace tube. Solidification took place upward from the bottom; and when the rate of lowering was small, a sound ingot free from sink holes and shrinkage cavities was produced. To remove the large quantities of gas contained in the electrolytic crystals, melting in a high vacuum is mandatory. While, from the standpoint of contamination, melting in a highly purified argon atmosphere appeared feasible, lithium and potassium removal proved less efficient under such conditions. Also, a vacuum-melted ingot has a cleaner surface than one melted in an inert atmosphere. The vacuum system must be of very high pumping speed and leak tight so that a vacuum of less than 2x10-7 mm Hg is attainable when the system is pumped down cold. The system must have a high pumping speed, so that the pressure maximum which may rise to 1x10-4 mm during heating can be quickly reduced

Jan 1, 1956

By Oliver Bowles, Carl A. Gnam

THE construction industry normally contributes extensively to the general economic welfare of all sections of the country. Billions of dollars are spent for materials and labor, and the success or failure of many business enterprises depends upon the volume of construction. The steel, aluminum, copper, cement, brick and tile, lime, gypsum, stone, sand and gravel, and several of the less prominent mineral industries are vitally concerned. Of great interest, therefore, is the accumulation of needed construction following the relative inactivity of the past five years, the recent moderate revival in building, and the prospect of a broader and more definite upturn. One may judge the magnitude of possible expenditure for construction by what has occurred in the past. The peak years were 1925 to 1928, inclusive, when the annual values of con- tracts awarded amounted to over six billion dollars. In marked contrast was the 1933 total of about 1% billion, the lowest level shown in the Federal Reserve Board Index, which goes back to 1919, and the more favorable 1935 figure of about 1.7 billion. An increase of nearly four billion over the 1935 volume would be necessary to equal the peak year 1928.

Jan 1, 1936

By Dorsey A. Lyon, Robert M. Keeney

The utilization of hydro-electriic power in electro-metallurgical industries, aside from purely mechanical operations, may be of two kinds. The electric energy may be used to supply the heat necessary for the performance of the chemical reactions of a metallurgical process, or the electrolytic action of a direct current may be employed for extraction of metals, either in a reduction process or a refining process. In discussing this subject, it is well to distinguish between established industries, which are producing metals and alloys at a, profit by use of the electric current, and the many processes which are either still in the experimental stage or have not even passed the paper stage of development of a patent. That is, we consider electro-metallurgical industries as commercial operations which are now consuming large blocks of electric energy, while processes which are not in commercial operation are only prospective consumers. Also, owing to the difliculty and risk of any attempt to foresee the effect of the European war upon electro-metallurgical industries, we have felt obliged to disregard the war entirely, and state our opinions regardless of its existence. Application of Electric Energy to Metallurgy Disregarding electrolytic refining processes, the applications of electric energy to metallurgy, when considered from a commercial viewpoint, may be classified as follows: Industries Experimental Processes Manufacture of aluminum Electric-furnace smelting of: Electric-furnace manufacture of: Ferro-alloys Copper ore Pig iron Zinc ore Steel In this paper only the above industries and experimental processes will be considered as possible consumers of hydro-electric power in large quan-

Jan 1, 1916

Teamwork: The famous first sentence of an essay en- titled Aphorisms, by Hippocrates, is as follows: "Life is short, the Art long, opportunity fleeting, experience treacherous, judgment difficult." The future of science does not depend so much on the number of scientists or the number of colleges, but rather on the individual qualities and the degree of perfection of a limited group of leading scientists and colleges. These are individual factors which require inherent talent which in turn is a condition evolved after generations of culture. Thus, very elaborate higher education for indiscriminate masses of humanity or students may not necessarily show the expected results. In other words, it is possible that higher specialized education should be given only to the few talented individuals, and their capacity and worth should be judged by as highly qualified and talented teachers. Quality is the greatest of all competitive aids. An essential qualification that must be possessed by a quality mineral industries college is a high caliber teaching staff, for the mineral sciences will advance in the coming years only if the leading minds of today are made avail- able as the mental springboards for our scientists of tomorrow. Mineral industries schools are finding it increasingly difficult to maintain a high caliber staff of instructors and administrators in competition with private business and governmental demands for similar

Jan 1, 1950

By George C. Branner

STATE geological surveys have had an interesting development in this country. They first appeared more than a hundred years ago. The fact that they have persisted and are now an important part of most state governments indicates the basic need for state departments con-cerned with mineral problems. The number of state surveys in 1941 (43) is at an all-time high, as is the aggre¬gate appropriation for their support for the fiscal year 1940-'41 ($1,600,708). The first surveys, those of North and South Carolina (see Fig. 1), made their appearance in 1820-'30, but neither survived that period. During the next two decades surveys were created in twenty states, but only three survived. In fact, it was not until the decade 1900-'10, when eighteen surveys were created and only five abolished, that these agencies became firmly established.

Jan 1, 1941