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By Masayuje Otagawa

The mining methods adopted in Japanese mines are less known to the mining world than those of other countries, owing to the geographical remoteness, but they present many features of interest to mining engineers. The Ashio copper mine is at the town of Ashio, in Tochigiken, about 109 mi. (175 km.) from Tokyo by the Imperial Government railroad. The area of the concession owned by the Furukawa Mining Co. is 5000 acres (5023 ha.). The mine was formerly divided into three, viz. Hon-ean, Kotaki, and Tsudo, which are distant 3 mi. (4.8 km.) from each other as shown in Fig. 1. However, in 1914, when the writer was general manager, the three mining plants were amalgamated into one with the result of simplifying the working projects and increasing the operating efficiency. The mine was visited by the Institute party in November, 1911, when K. Inouye was the general manager. Shortly afterward, the writer was appointed manager, and, in 1915, he was succeeded by Dr. K. Asano. At the end of 1917, K. Kibe became general manager and, after two years, was succeeded by the present manager, I. Sugimoto. For some time Dr. J. Kojima was acting general manager. It is necdless to say that the gentlemen mentioned are all members of the Institute, as is also Baron T. Furukawa, president of the company. Since the discovery of the enormous masses, called "kajika" or "bullhead" deposits, which the writer has described elsewhere,' the mining methods have been varied to meet the different conditions presented by these deposits. The Ashio Ore The country rock of this mine consists of the middle Chichibian slate and quartzite into which has been intruded a post-Tertiary plagio-liparite neck more than 2 mi. in diameter, in the shape of an inverted cone which narrows downward to a relatively small diameter in depth.

Jan 1, 1923

By H. B. Goodrich

Anthony I?. Lucas died suddenly at his home in Washington, D. C., on Sept. 2, 1921. Captain Lucas, as he was known to us, was born in Dalmatia, Austria, in 1855, of Montenegrin ancestry. He was graduated as an engineer at the Polytechnic of Grate and served in the Austrian Navy as second lieutenant. In 1879, he obtained leave of absence and visited an uncle in the United States. After an extension of this leave of absence, in order to undertake an engineering engagement in the lumber district of Michigan, where he resided, he decided to become an American citizen. He was naturalized in May, 1885. His name was Luchich, but as his uncle had adopted the name of Lucas, which was more easily pronounced by Americans, from his entrance to this country, he used this Anglo-Saxon form. Without knowing this fact, upon first meeting him a person was sometimes surprised to note the rather Germanic pronunciation of the Captain. Although he subsequently revisited Austria with Mrs. Lucas, he made his permanent home at Washington, D. C. His son served with distinction in the A. E. F. during the World War. His activities in this country as a mining engineer were at first in Colorado and later in salt mining at Petit Anse and Belle Isle, La. During his salt investigations, his attention was directed toward the possibility of oil in the Gulf Coast region and in January, 1901, his well, the "Lucas Gusher," on Spindle Top, Tex., started a new era in the oil business and his reputation as discoverer made him famous throughout the world. Captain Lucas became a member of the A. I. M. E. in 1895. During 1914, 1915, 1918, and 1919, he was chairman of the Petroleum and Gas Committee of the Institute and was at all times prominent in Institute affairs. As to the personality of Captain Lucas, the lasting impression is of a courteous hospitable gentleman, genial, affable, obliging, and helpful with his advice br assistance to any colleague. He was sincere, honest, firm against all obstacles, backing his judgment with his own hard work along any course which he had determined to be correct. His value in the engineering world lies mainly in the petroleum industry. In the oil business all wild-catters are pioneers that deserve credit and gratitude upon their success. There are, however, names that particularly stand out in our history. Drake conquered such obstacles as ridicule, lack of finances, and started the oil business. In 1901, Captain Lucas had the conviction that Spindle Top, a dome rising about 12 ft. above the coastal prairie south of Beaumont, Tex., contained commercial oil. He was scoffed at by practical oil men of the East. Noted geologists

Jan 1, 1921

By C. A. Stewart

I. INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL STATEMENT OF RESULTS. The field-work upon which this paper is based was done in the summer of 1910, and was made possible by the courtesy of the Imperial Copper Co., which gave me access to its property. For their kindness in this respect I wish to express my thanks to W. F. Staunton and Meade Goodloe. Moreover,. B. F. Smith and G. B. Gentry, mining engineers in the employ of the company, gave invaluable assistance by placing maps,. etc., at my disposal, and by discussing with me the problems of the district; and it is a great pleasure to acknowledge this indebtedness to them. In order that the significance of some of the details that follow may be better appreciated at first reading, a general outline of the conclusions reached is given here. In the Silverbell mining-district a series of Palaeozoic limestone blocks is completely surrounded by post-Palaeozoic igneous rocks, intruded in the following order: alaskite, alaskite-porphyry, biotite-granite, andesite, and quartz-porphyry. The biotite-granite is believed to represent a differentiation of the. magma from which the alaskite-porphyry came ; and this conclusion-has an important hearing on the origin of the ores. The intrusion of both alaskite-porphyry and biotite-granite was followed by the emission of magmatic waters, which sericitized and silicified the alaskite-porphyry and granite, and produced in the limestone, by the addition to it of silica, iron, and alumina, great masses of garnet, quartz, and wollastonite. Following close upon these solutions came metal-bearing magmatic waters, which impregnated porphyry, granite, and alas kite with cupriferous pyrite, and deposited in the garnet zones chalcopyrite and copper-bearing pyrite that make important bodies of contact-metamorphic ores. Secondary enrichment has taken place in the disseminated ores in the igneous rocks,. raising their copper-content to 2 per cent. in some cases,. and extensive drilling has been undertaken to block out these deposits. East of the contact-metamorphic deposits there is a fissure-vein of lead-silver ore in the quartz-porphyry. This rock is distinctly younger than the alaskite-porphyry and the granite; and the lead-silver ores belong, therefore, to a period of mineralization distinctly later than the copper-deposition.

May 1, 1912

By HOMER L. WILLIAMS

WHILE some of the mining companies have been pumping a small amount of water for some time, it is only in recent years that large quantities of water have been encountered in the Tonopah district. The water appears to be in different zones or belts so that the draining of one property does not necessarily affect the one adjoining. Consequently, each company has its own pumping plant and its own conditions. The companies panes handling the largest amount of water are the Tonopah Extension Mining Co., Halifax Tonopah Mining Co., West Tonopah Consolidated Mining Co., and Great Western Consolidated Mining Co. The Halifax shaft is on the eastern end of the district and the other three properties on the western. The ore-bearing formation occurs at greater depth on -the eastern and western ends, hence the water problem in these properties.

Jan 1, 1921

By Marius R. Campbell

Does mine-sampling show the commercial value of a coal, and if so, how should it be done ? This question is often asked, but seldom answered. During the past summer, while engaged in securing coal for the Government coal-testing plant at St. Louis, I had an excellent opportunity to obtain information on t,his subject, and the results seem to furniih an answer to the question propounded above. Sampling for the U. 8. Geological Survey Coal- Testing Plant. In organizing the work of the testing-plant, it was decided that coal, in car-load lots only, would be accepted for testing; also that this coal should be loaded under the immediate supervision of a representative of the plant, so as to be certain that the car-load sample would be representative. As an additional check on the work, two mine-samples were to be collected from each mine visited, and these samples, as well as the sample from the car when it was received at the testing-plant, were to be carefully analyzed at the chemical laboratory established in connection with the plant and operated under the direction of Prof. N W. Lord of the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Mine-Samp1ing.—Mine-samples were collected with great care by me and my assistants, Messrs. J. Shober Burrows, John W. Groves and Frank W. De Wolf. The dominant idea in the regulations adopted for mine-sampling mas, that it should be done in such a manner that the sample would have the same composition as the commercial output of the mine.

Jan 1, 1906

By Donald Barton

THE theory of gravitation is based on Newton's law that any two bodies exert a mutual attraction which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them; i. e., A =KRM/R2 (1) where K is a constant, M and m are the respective masses of the two bodies, and R the distance between them. In the earth's gravitational system, the earth is one of the bodies; the other may be any body within or without the earth. In theoretical dis¬cussions and calculations in regard to gravity, that other body usually is taken as a unit of mass: in the C. G. S. system, a body of one gram in mass. GRAVITY AND LEVEL SURFACES Gravity is defined in geophysics as the force of attraction exerted by the earth, towards itself, on a body of unit mass. The intensity of gravity is usually expressed in dynes of force or in centimeters of acceleration. In geophysical work in America, most commonly it is expressed in dynes (per gram) with the "per gram" understood and not directly expressed. In geophysical work in Europe, most commonly it is expressed in centimeters per second per second (cm./sec.2) and less commonly merely as centimeter-gram-second units (C. G. S.). At sea level, the intensity of gravity amounts very nearly to 980 dynes. The vertical is the direction along which the attraction of gravity is exerted at any point. . In most cases, it is very nearly, but not quite, per¬pendicular to the earth's surface. The path that would be taken by a body falling freely through space toward the earth is vertical at each point and may be spoken of also as "the vertical," or as the line of the vertical, or as a line of force of gravity. At the earth's surface it com¬monly is very nearly, but not quite, a straight line.

Jan 1, 1928

By Willis H. Carrier

Particular interest in the ventilation of deep mines, especially those in South Africa, has been created by a very complete system of cooling of the world's deepest mine, the Turf shaft of the Robinson Deep in Johannesburg. The writer visited this mine in January, 1936, and again in 1937. During these visits and subsequently, a considerable part of the theory involved in rock cooling in tunnels was developed and this has been checked by practical observations of the rates of rock cooling made within mines. The purpose of this paper is to set forth the method of attack of the mine problem. The cooling or air conditioning of mines by the use of mechanical refrigeration was not wholly newl-5 when the Robinson Deep installation was made. The first mine to be cooled was the Morro Velho mine, in Brazil. The first installation in this mine was put into operation in December 1920, the refrigerant being ammonia.5 The surface cooling gave considerable benefit but it proved inadequate as greater depths were reached, therefore in 1929 two centrifugal refrigerating machines were installed at the 6000-ft. level. These were used in conjunction with the surface cooling system to furnish additional cooling at the lower levels. This later installation used Carrene as a refrigerant. This nonflammable refrigerant, having a boiling point of 104" at sea level, insured reasonable safety, since all parts of the machine operated at subatmospheric pressure. Very favorable reports have been received on the effectiveness of this installation, but no recent data are available. An interesting feature of that plant is that the condenser water is cooled by spraying it into the exhaust air from the mine at the base of the ventilation upcast, which permits the water to be cooled within a few degrees of the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the upcast, and the only water that has to be supplied for condensing purposes is that lost by evaporation, or about 0.5 per cent of the volume circulating through the condenser. This plan affords an ideal means for the removal of the heat load from the refrigerating system, and of course also from the mine itself. In many mines, however, especially those in South Africa, there is no

Jan 1, 1940

By Willis H. Carrier

Particular interest in the ventilation of deep mines, especially those in South Africa, has been created by a very complete system of cooling of the world's deepest mine, the Turf shaft of the Robinson Deep in Johannesburg. The writer visited this mine in January, 1936, and again in 1937. During these visits and subsequently, a considerable part of the theory involved in rock cooling in tunnels was developed and this has been checked by practical observations of the rates of rock cooling made within mines. The purpose of this paper is to set forth the method of attack of the mine problem. The cooling or air conditioning of mines by the use of mechanical refrigeration was not wholly newl-5 when the Robinson Deep installation was made. The first mine to be cooled was the Morro Velho mine, in Brazil. The first installation in this mine was put into operation in December 1920, the refrigerant being ammonia.5 The surface cooling gave considerable benefit but it proved inadequate as greater depths were reached, therefore in 1929 two centrifugal refrigerating machines were installed at the 6000-ft. level. These were used in conjunction with the surface cooling system to furnish additional cooling at the lower levels. This later installation used Carrene as a refrigerant. This nonflammable refrigerant, having a boiling point of 104" at sea level, insured reasonable safety, since all parts of the machine operated at subatmospheric pressure. Very favorable reports have been received on the effectiveness of this installation, but no recent data are available. An interesting feature of that plant is that the condenser water is cooled by spraying it into the exhaust air from the mine at the base of the ventilation upcast, which permits the water to be cooled within a few degrees of the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the upcast, and the only water that has to be supplied for condensing purposes is that lost by evaporation, or about 0.5 per cent of the volume circulating through the condenser. This plan affords an ideal means for the removal of the heat load from the refrigerating system, and of course also from the mine itself. In many mines, however, especially those in South Africa, there is no

Jan 1, 1940

After the close of the Revolution, settlers began to pour over the mountains, to settle in the western parts of Pennsylvania, of Virginia, to move down the Ohio into Kentucky, and in the late seventeen-eighties to settle on "the Indian side" of the river, now Ohio. With the growth of population the interest in coal increased and it was not long before the production of coal west of the mountains was larger than that east of them. Foreign nations, too, became interested in the young republic and in 1783, at the instance of the Swedish government S. A. Hermelin, an engineer, visited this country to investigate its iron industry. He made a very interesting report, not published until 1931, in which he gave many details of the iron plants in the eastern United States; apparently he was not west of the mountains, but was well informed about conditions there. He says, "that some coal near the first branches of the Schuylkill River has been mined and utilized by the blacksmiths," referring, of course, to anthracite; again that "coal mines have also been worked for several years near Pittsburg," and that "great supplies of iron ore are available at the Ohio Falls and further to the west, at Coney Creek, a part of the Green River, where there is also coal."' In 1788, Dr. Johann David Schoepf, who came to this country with the Hessian troops, visited Pittsburgh. He was an intelligent man and acquainted to some extent with minerals and methods of working them. In speaking of Coal Hill on the south side of the Monongahela he mentioned several strata of marble in the lower part and that

Jan 1, 1942

By C. E. Abbott

The Birmingham district, Alabama, is distinctive in the proximity to one another of its deposits of iron ore, coal and flux. These three basic requisites for the making of iron and steel are found within a radius of 10 miles. Both dolomite and limestone are produced, the former for blast-furnace flux and the latter for basic open-hearth operations. The Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co., a subsidiary of the United States Steel Corporation, operates a limestone mine at Muscoda, near Bessemer, 12 miles southwest of Birmingham, served by its own railroad transportation system. The mine has a capacity of 130 tons per hour. Average analyses of a recent month's production arc as follows: Fe²zO³ SiO² Al²O³ CaCO³ MgCO³ Lump, percent............................. 0.51 0.22 98.63 0.14 Crushed and washed, per cent,................ 0.70 0.26 98.36 0.18 Lump stone, 2 1/2 to 755 in., is used in open-hearth operations at Fairfield Steel Works. Fine crushed and washed stone, 1% to 0.063 in., is calcined at the lime-burning plant and used for lime charges at the Ensley open hearths. Geology The district's deposits of hematite ore occur in the Clinton formation, and the limestone beds mined are stratigraphically 330 ft. above the ore beds worked. A cross section on the center line of the mine is shown in Fig. 1. This limestone formation, 130 ft. thick, is in the Warsaw horizon of the Lower Mississippian. It lies above 100 ft. of Fort Payne chert, which is immediately above the Clinton formation, and is composcd of layers of chert and cherty limestone, approximately 50 per cent of the material being pure chert. The chert is extremely hard, and the cost of driving raises through it is very high. Both iron ore and limestone deposits lie on the southwest limb of the Jones Valley anticline, the formations dipping from 15' to 32' to the southeast. The iron-ore seam outcrops along the crest of Red Mountain, a ridge with northeast-southwest trend rising 200 to 300 ft. above Jones and Shades valleys at the

Jan 1, 1938

By C. E. Abbott

The Birmingham district, Alabama, is distinctive in the proximity to one another of its deposits of iron ore, coal and flux. These three basic requisites for the making of iron and steel are found within a radius of 10 miles. Both dolomite and limestone are produced, the former for blast-furnace flux and the latter for basic open-hearth operations. The Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co., a subsidiary of the United States Steel Corporation, operates a limestone mine at Muscoda, near Bessemer, 12 miles southwest of Birmingham, served by its own railroad transportation system. The mine has a capacity of 130 tons per hour. Average analyses of a recent month's production arc as follows: Fe²zO³ SiO² Al²O³ CaCO³ MgCO³ Lump, percent............................. 0.51 0.22 98.63 0.14 Crushed and washed, per cent,................ 0.70 0.26 98.36 0.18 Lump stone, 2 1/2 to 755 in., is used in open-hearth operations at Fairfield Steel Works. Fine crushed and washed stone, 1% to 0.063 in., is calcined at the lime-burning plant and used for lime charges at the Ensley open hearths. Geology The district's deposits of hematite ore occur in the Clinton formation, and the limestone beds mined are stratigraphically 330 ft. above the ore beds worked. A cross section on the center line of the mine is shown in Fig. 1. This limestone formation, 130 ft. thick, is in the Warsaw horizon of the Lower Mississippian. It lies above 100 ft. of Fort Payne chert, which is immediately above the Clinton formation, and is composcd of layers of chert and cherty limestone, approximately 50 per cent of the material being pure chert. The chert is extremely hard, and the cost of driving raises through it is very high. Both iron ore and limestone deposits lie on the southwest limb of the Jones Valley anticline, the formations dipping from 15' to 32' to the southeast. The iron-ore seam outcrops along the crest of Red Mountain, a ridge with northeast-southwest trend rising 200 to 300 ft. above Jones and Shades valleys at the

Jan 1, 1938

By R. S. Archibald, L. S. Chabot

The Blueberry mine is about 10 miles west of Ishpeming, Marquette County, Michigan. The property consists of about 2000 acres in sees. 3, 4 and 5, T. 47, N.R. 28W. and secs. 32, 33 and 34, T. 48, N.R. 28W., and, excepting one intervening 80-acre tract, contains the iron formation for a length of about 21/4 miles. The property is traversed by State Highway M-28 and is served by three railways, the Chicago & Northwestern, the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic, and the Lake Superior & Ishpeming. The Northwestern transports the ore to a dock at Escanaba; the other railways, to Marquette. Ore for Chicago goes via Escanaba and that for Lower Lake ports, as Detroit, Cleveland, and Buffalo, via Marquette. History The presence of iron formation in this property has been known for many years, and mining operations on a small scale have been carried on intermittently. The Dexter mine, on the SE.1/4 of the NW.1/4 of sec. 3, was worked from 1883 to 1897 and 118,000 tons of ore was mined. From 1907 to 1915 extensive exploration was carried on over the whole of sec. 3, including 79 diamond-drill holes with a total footage of 26,000 ft. The Chase mine, on the NE.1/4 of the NE.1/4 of sec. 3, was developed from this exploration work, but after about 200,000 tons had been mined the property was abandoned. From 1908 to 1910 exploration was carried on by another company on sec. 4, 47-28, including four drill holes with a total footage of about 5000 ft. Much of the drilling on sec. 3 and of the exploration work on sec. 4 are within the present developed area of the Blueberry mine. A general campaign of diamond-drill exploration was undertaken in 1924, and within a year a considerable amount of ore was developed. The Ford Motor Co. then took an option on the property and carried on check drilling and diamond-drill work until the spring of 1926, when enough ore had been developed to warrant the sinking of a shaft

Jan 1, 1937

By Anthony Lucas

THE discovery of oil in 1901 on the Spindletop dome, Texas, inaugurated a new industry on the Gulf Coast, an industry which has grown with the discovery of successive fields, until today it engages the services of thousands of workers and employs enormous capital. New fields are being discovered from time to time and doubtless some still remain to be found, though of late years discoveries have become more infrequent. Nowadays several hundred dry holes are drilled each year in a fruitless and blind effort to discover new fields, for as yet geologic science has developed no effectual method of locating the coastal oil deposits in advance of drilling. Moreover, despite the occasional discovery of new fields, the total production of the Gulf Coast is today no greater than it was in 1906, for the added production of the new fields has been offset by the rapid decline and more or less complete exhaustion of some of the older ones. Careful geologic work within the fields has in some cases increased the production temporarily, but has developed no really new supplies. The Gulf Coast oil industry seems to have passed its period of greatest expansion and to be declining at a fairly steady rate, and this condition is naturally viewed with alarm by the more farsighted operators. In my opinion, the time has come for the adoption of radical and aggressive methods of prospecting, and a fraction of the money wasted yearly in drilling shallow wells in hopeless locations might well be devoted to this purpose. Many facts lead me to believe that all the salt-dome oil has had a common origin; that it has migrated up from considerable

Jan 7, 1918

By John V. Beall

Never having done it before, it took us all day and until 11 at night to select and pack for a four-day back- pack trip up Lake Chelan last month. When we were through, we couldn't lift our own pack and Sylvia's, OUT spouse's, we barely managed to budge. Nevertheless, the next morning we were at the dock to board the Laldy of the Lake for the 3 ½ -hr boat trip to Lucerne. Our dress and accouterments creating the appearance of a veritable expedition into the wilderness made a sharp contrast with our fellow passengers, a senior citizens tour group from Spokane. We had come out to Seattle for the SME Fall Meeting and were taking advantage of the occasion for a vacation trip back to Lucerne and Holden where we had lived briefly 25-years ago, and a backpack trip up Railroad Creek from Holden to the Glacier Peak country, weather permitting. No matter what you say, weather is important, and this is one of the ingredients that went into making the SME Fall Meeting and Exhibit in Seattle, September 22-24, a thoroughly delightful experience for the 700 plus persons who attended. Seattle is a beautiful city, but with late September sunshine, which we experienced, it is the best. The second ingredient, is a swinging host committee. Under the leadership of Don Anderson and Tom Van Zandt, co-chairmen, and Mrs. Cecilia Reed, Ladies Program, superb hospitality and fine arrangements were blended. Earl Beistline, from Fairbanks, organized a two-day short course on arctic operations which preceded the meeting and drew an attendance of 44. Dick Robbins, in charge of arrangements, provided Masters-at- arms for technical sessions and a presentation of the colors by the U.S. Coast Guard at the Welcoming Luncheon. Eric Cheney's field trips ranged far and wide with events both before and after the meeting. David (Jeff) Kroft, capably managed audio-visual operations with a group of students from the University of Washington. Charles Hochmuth worked long, hard and effectively before and during the meet- ing on finances. Hank Reed, managed an authentic three-ring circus as Entertainment Chairman. His activities covered two cocktail receptions for all registrants and a dinner-dance. Dolph Campbell and Joe Hackbarth provided publicity by press and TV (see p. 37-40). SME's meetings have certain characteristics and possibly not all of these are known to everyone. The first of these is the deliberate involvement of the AIME Section in the area of the meeting. Most trade shows and conventions are run 100% by a professional staff and although SME staff could also do this, it has been our experience that a more friendly and better meeting results when the local members apply their talents. Actually SME only considers a site for a meeting after it has received an invitation from a Section. The knowledge of local conditions which Section committeemen bring to a meeting is of great value.

Jan 1, 1971

By G. Bhat, J. F. Libsch

A STUDY of the kinetics of embrittlement in engineering alloy steels during tempering has indicated that the presence of alloying elements may define two distinct regions of embrittlement: 1) at 800° to 1000 °F, termed low temperature embrittle-ment, and 2) in the temperature range 1150 ° to 1250°F, termed high temperature embrittlement.13 It has been suggested that embrittlement in each region may be due to a different mechanism. At intermediate temperatures and extended times the course of embrittlement may be influenced by the superposition of the embrittlement occurring in the two regions. Furthermore, low temperature embrittlement has been known to decrease as the temperature is raised slightly above the maximum embrittlement range.' Jaffe and BuffumV ave presented data for a Ni-Cr steel illustrating the removal of the em-brittlement occurring at 932°F by reheating to 1250°F for an hour. Their data further shows that embrittlement proceeds continuously with increased time at 1250°F, becoming pronounced at long times. They interpreted this behavior as a retrogression phenomenon involving the solution of the small nuclei of precipitate formed at 932°F as the temperature was increased, and reprecipitation of larger nuclei stable at 1250°F, with the reoccurrence of embrittlement. It appears desirable to reconsider this explanation in the light of the two regions of embrittlement proposed by the authors1 for some alloy steels. In addition, it appears desirable to determine any influence of a preconditioning treatment in each temperature range upon subsequent development of low and high temperature embrittlement. It is thus the object of this investigation to study the characteristics of the two modes of embrittlement proposed in a commercial Ni-Cr alloy steel (AISI 3140). Experimental Details Material—The material used in this investigation was commercial AISI 3140 steel bar stock, received as % in. hot-rolled rounds. The steel analysis was as follows (in percentages): C, 0.39; Mn, 0.79; Si, 0.30; S, 0.028; P, 0.015; Ni, 1.26; and Cr, 0.77. Material Processing and Heat Treatment—The bar stock was first ground to 0.430 in. squares and cut into specimens 23/4 in. long. These specimens were austenitized at 1650°F for 1 hr and oil

Jan 1, 1958

GENTLEMAN: The year 1928 was another in the history of the Institute which was marked by quiet growth and steady progress. The total membership as of December 31, 1928, was 8703 as compared with 8438 on December 31, in 1927. Again the main increase has been in Members and the number of Junior Associates is less. As will be seen also by the Treasurer's report, the increase is reflected in larger receipts for dues indicating that fewer have had to be dropped for non-payment. There has been a gratifying increase in the number applying for reinstatement and it seems clear that interest in and attachment to the Institute has notably increased. The year was signalized by the merging of the Rocky Mountain Club with the Institute which brought to our roll one hundred and forty who were not previously members from among the men who have made the West. It also brought to the Institute a strong tradition of good fellowship and a fund of over $100,000, the interest from which is to be expended so far as may be, for purposes beneficial to the Western states. The Endowment Committee expects to see other and similar funds entrusted to the Institute and the Board has already appointed a special committee to consider all projects for expenditure of the revenue from them. It is felt that with the organization and personnel available in the Institute even modest revenues can be made to yield large returns in the way of scientific and technical knowledge. Within the year also, a third great Division has been organized within the Institute, building on the foundation of the old Iron and Steel Committee. The new Division signalized its independence by joining the Lake Superior Mining Institute in a visit to the Menominee Range in September and by furnishing material for a special volume of 353 pages, "Iron and Steel" Technology in 1928," printed and distributed in December. The Institute of Metals Division held its fall meeting with good attendance as one feature of National Metal Week at Philadelphia in October, and published its volume of Proceedings, running to 836 pages, in August. "Petroleum Development and Technology in 1927," 844 pages, came out in June and recorded the work of the Petroleum Division. A most interesting Fall meeting was also held by the Division at Tulsa,

Jan 1, 1929

By W. A. Backofen, A. T. English

The kinetics of re crystallization were determined metallographically for a 3-1/4 pcl Si-Fe rapidly compressed at temperatures of 710° to 911°C, and held for various times at the working temperature. As in re crystallization following cold wwk, the time for re crystallization was reduced by increased temperature and strain. Nucleation occurred chiefly at grain edges, although other pre-existing interfaces, notably inclusions, also served as nucleation sites. The importance of intragranular nucleation to grain refinement in hot working is pointed out, together with some possible techniques by which nucleation might be induced within the grains. The observed isothermal growth rates are quite accurately described by the equation G = 4 x 10-'/t (cm per sec), independent of temperature and strain at all but the shortest times. Changes in G during recrystalliza-tion can exceed two orders of magnitude. It is argued that release of stored energy associated with lattice defects cannot adequately explain the time dependence. A suggested alternative involves processes of solute segregation and desegregation in the unrecrystallized matrix and at the moving boundary, respectively. EFFORTS to improve hot-working practice are hampered by an incomplete understanding of the fundamental metallurgy involved. Research directed at establishing the required basic foundation falls into two categories, the first concerned with measurement of mechanical properties under the conditions of high temperature and strain rate which characterize such processing, the second focused on structure and its relation to the deformation conditions. Rossard,' Rossard and Blain,2 and Hardwick and Tegart have conducted many high-speed, high-temperature torsion tests on various metals. One of their objectives was interpretation of stress-strain curves in terms of the structures of specimens rapidly quenched following interruption of twisting. They showed that appreciable hardening occurred in the early part of the test, and that this hardening reflected the concurrent development of an increasingly dense substructure within the grains. The detailed nature of this substructure was observed to depend on the ease of polygonization which, at least in fcc metals, varies with the stacking-fault energy.= By holding specimens after interruption but before quenching, the nucleation and growth of new grains could also be studied. Some success has been realized in relating the microstructure of hot-rolled steel to its temperature:strain rate:strain history with such testing.' The same general observations have been made by others investigating rolling4f5 and drop-hammer forging.~-~ Incident to these experiments, some efforts were made to determine the kinetics of re-crystallization as well as the velocity of the migrating boundaries. The results have been largely qualitative, owing to difficulties of interpreting hardness measurements5 and microstructures. The work described here was undertaken to obtain more quantitative information from tests on a material having suitable metallographic properties, and, in this way, to provide further insight into the fundamentals of this practically most important kind of deformation processing. I) MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Materials. Electrolytic etching of a Si-Fe alloy reveals dislocations and substructure in unrecrystallized grains.8'9 This unique characteristic makes possible a precise determination of the extent of recrystallization. For that reason, it was the material selected for all experiments in the present work. The two particular alloys that were used are identified in Table I. A major difference between "A" and "B" is the number of inclusions, as noted in the table. Most of the experiments were made with material "A". It was received as hot-rolled plate 1 in. thick, sawed to 2-in. widths, hot-forged at 1200°C to 5/8-in. rounds, and finally annealed in a mechanical vacuum at 1000°C for 24 hr. The result was substructure-free grains of mean diameter 0.05 cm.*

Jan 1, 1964

The Delegation of American Engineers constituted by the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, that visited France in December, 1918, in acceptance of the invitation extended by the Congrés General du Genie Civil consisted of the following: Representing the American Society of Civil Engineers, Major James F. Case, past president, Geo. F. Swain, vice-president, Nelson P. Lewis, treasurer, Geo. W. Tillson, past director, Geo. W. Fuller, director, A. M. Hunt. Representing the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, president, Chas. T. Main. Representing the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, past president, L. B. Stillwell. Representing the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers past-president, E. C. Spilsbury. The delegation organized on the way over by the choice of Major James F. Case as chairman, and Geo F. Swain as secretary. On arriving at Bordeaux, the Delegation was met by Mr. S. D. Brown, associate member of the American Society of Civil Engineers; and on its arrival in Paris it was joined permanently by the following attaches: Captain P. Charton, of the French Engineers, Delegate of the Commissariat-General to accompany the Delegation and serve as liaison officer; Captain Carpenter of the American Army; and Mr. Geo. Herdt, representing the Society of Civil Engineers of France. The object of the visit was to discuss with the French engineers the large engineering, problems now facing France. Engineering problems in their restricted technical sense came up for discussion practically not at all, for the French do not need advice nor assistance along strictly scientific lines. It was in the -larger and economic aspects of engineering, to aid in building up the industries and commerce of France, that our French associates desired to learn from the experience of the American Delegation.

Jan 9, 1919

By Krahmann, Rudolf

THE following is an account of a survey undertaken to test the possibility of outlining a kimberlite pipe by magnetouietric methods. Kimberlite is a basic igneous rock closely related to melilite-basalt or alnoite, which occurs either in the form of volcanic plugs or as dikes intruded into rocks of various types and geological ages up to and includ¬ing the Lower Cretaceous. The famous diamond mines of South Africa are all in kimberlite pipes and these pipes are probably the original source as well of the vast alluvial deposits found in various parts of the country. The pipe chosen for this experiment is one that ' occurs on the farm Goedgevonden No. 20, about sixteen miles north of the village of Klerksdorp and ninety miles southwest of Johannesburg. Some prospecting has been done on this pipe and diamonds were produced from it but not in paying quantities. The magnetometric survey was made in June, 1932, by R. Krahmann and H. Wallisch and the results are shown on the accompanying plan. On the plan are shown also the boundaries of the pipe as exposed at the surface and details in regard to the surrounding foundations. These are taken from a geological survey made at a later date by W. Beetz, of Johannesburg.

Jan 1, 1935

By A. H. Daane, B. J. Beaudry

The Sc-Y and Sc-Zr systems were studied by thermal and X-ray methods. Both systems are characterized by complete solid solubility in the low temperature hexagonal form and in the high temperature bcc form. In the Sc-Y system, there is a minimum in the solidus at 50 at. pct and 1365°C, while the solidus in the Sc-Zr system follows a nearly straight line relationship between the melting point of scandium and zirconium. There is a minimum in the temperature of transition from hexagonal to bcc in the Sc-Y system at 43 at. pct Y and 1175°C; while the temperature of transition is raised in the Sc-Zr system to a maximum of 1415 °C at 30 at. pct Zr. INTEREST in the metals of the first transition series has usually stemmed from their useful properties; however, there is now a great deal of interest in determining the fundamental nature of these metals. Since scandium is the first of these transition metals, a study of the preparation and Properties1 and the alloying behavior of scandium2 was initiated. In a continuing study of the alloying behavior of scandium, the systems of scandium with zirconium and yttrium have been established. Extensive solid solubility in both the Sc-Zr and Sc-Y systems was expected from application of the classical rules of Hume-Rothery. Also, the modified Darken and Gurry plot as suggested by Gschneid-ner3 showed ideal conditions for solubility in the Sc-Zr system with less favorable conditions in the Sc-Y system. The effect of scandium on the transformation temperature of zirconium and yttrium was of interest, since a recent empirical observation by Uly and Burr4 predicted that the solute scandium would raise the transformation temperature of zirconium and lower the yttrium transformation. In addition to noting the validity of the above predictions, the SC-Y and Sc-Zr systems were established. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Materials. The metals employed in this investigation were crystal bar zirconium, distilled scandium prepared by the method described by Spedding, et al.1 and yttrium prepared by the method described by Carlson, et a1.5 The major impurities present in these metals are listed in Table I in ppm. Alloy Preparation. All the alloys examined were initially formed by comelting the two metals in a nonconsumable electrode arc-melting furnace under an atmosphere of purified helium or argon. The buttons were inverted at least five times and re-melted each time to ensure homogeneity. During preparation of Sc-Zr alloys, approximately 1 wt pct was lost which was attributed entirely to the loss of scandium by distillation. When preparing Sc-Y alloys, approximately 1.5 wt pct was lost, but it was assumed that the intended composition was maintained, since the relative weight lost when arc melting the component metals was nearly the same. Samples weighing 15 to 20 g were prepared for time-temperature thermal analysis, while only 1- to 2-g samples were prepared for the optical pyrometer and X-ray diffraction studies. Thermal Methods. The solidus and the melting points of the metals were determined by an optical pyrometer method described previously.2 The temperatures at which the transformation from hexagonal to bcc occurs were determined by differential thermal analysis. Several points on the solidus and liquidus in the Sc-Y system were also determined by this method and are in good agreement with those obtained by the optical pyrometer method. The procedure followed in the preparation of samples for thermal analysis and the furnace used have been described elsewhere.2'6 Since a limited quantity of scandium was available, most of the alloys were not melted during thermal analysis, thus avoiding contamination by the crucible. The alloy could then be reused and the composition changed by adding the desired quantity of solute to obtain the next alloy. Heat Treatment and X-Ray Methods. In order to ensure homogeneity, the "as arc-melted" alloys Were wrapped in tantalum foil, sealed in quartz capsules and heated at 1100°C for 15 hr and then cooled at a rate of 8 deg per min. Samples for X-ray diffraction were filed from these heat-treated alloys, sealed in 1/8 in. by 1/2 in. tantalum capsules under

Jan 1, 1963