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By D. L. Blakeman, Trimble. J. W., S. W. Banning

Noranda's Grey Eagle mine and mill, in the Siskiyou Mountains of northern California, began shakedown operations in the late fall and early winter of 1982. This paper describes some of the unique features in mineralogy, milling, and water treatment operation at Grey Eagle. In addition, major start-up problems in the mill and water treatment plant are discussed along with measures taken to correct these problems.

Jan 1, 1986

By J. M. Sands

Describes important developments in, four counties, all of which brought in 40° oil. Indications are favorable for the future, although the daily production of the agate decreased 19,000 bbl. during the year 1923. THE state of Kansas had a daily average crude-oil production of about 87,000 bbl. at the beginning of the year. This showed a steady but consistent decline during the 12 months, so that the daily average production at the end of the year was slightly over 68,000 barrels. GREENWOOD COUNTY THE most active development in Kansas during the year was in Green-. wood County, in a line from near Sallyards in T 25-R 9 to east of Madison in T 22-R, 11. The main part of. this development has been in a succession of pools beginning at the south with the Polhamus pool in 34-24-9 and 3 and 4-25-9; Thrall pool in 28, 29, 32 and 33-23-10; Burkett pool in. 13, 23, 24 and 26-23-10; Seeley and Wick pool in 22, 27, 28, 32 and 33-22-11 and 5, 6, 7, and 8-23-11; Frohm pool in 11, 14 and 15-22-11; Madison pool in 31 and 32-21-12 and 6, 22, 12 and 1-22-11. Some of these pools, have two or more sands, locally called Bartlesville and Burgess Sands. They range in. depth from 1850 ft. near Madison to 2450 ft. near Sallyards, the general dip being to the west. The thickness of these sands runs from 20 to 100 ft., the initial production of the wells being 50 to 1000 bbl. of 40-gravity oil or better.

Jan 3, 1924

By George B. Clark

COMMERCIAL strip mining of coal was first begun in the state of Illinois in 1911.1 The annual tonnage of coal produced from coal strip mines in the state was very small until 1924, when the strip mines shipped 1.68 pet of the total state shipping mine tonnage. Since then, strip mines have gradually come into their own by producing a sizable percentage of the coal produced in the state. Table 1 shows the coal tonnage shipped from both underground and strip coal mines in the state of Illinois for selected years. The table illustrates the major role that strip mines play in the state's coal industry. Today, strip mining is generally conducted in areas where the coal seams lie so close to the surface of earth that a stripping method of mining the coal seam is cheaper than an underground method. Strip mining not only recovers 100 pct of the coal deposit, but may also be used as a method of mining large acreages of coal abandoned by the closing of underground mines.

Jan 1, 1949

By Carle R. Hayward

THOUGH recent months have seen a rapid decline in lead-smelting activity and consequent uncertainty as to the future, the first half of the year showed progress in keeping with similar activity in other metals. Demand for scrap increased and various lead-bearing materials found their way to plants producing secondary lead. Some of these materials introduced complications into normal smelting procedure and were the cause of many conferences among plant officials attempting to find the most satisfactory method of treatment. If a blast furnace is to do itself justice it must be run with an open charge. Troubles inevitably result when materials are added to a charge which tighten it up and pre- vent free burning of the coke and con- sequent rapid smelting with a clean hearth This fact has long been recognized by plants producing primary lead, but only recently only it received the attention it deserves.

Jan 1, 1938

By Norman D. Fitzgerald

IN 1943 the petroleum industry completed a series of practical adjustments to the acute problems which dominated the scene a year earlier. The crisis in petroleum transportation from the Gulf Coast to the East Coast was met by the completion of overland pipe lines supplementing emergency haulage by tank car so pressure on consumers along the Atlantic Seaboard was appreciably relieved. Later in the year when the western Atlantic was largely cleared of submarines, the sharp reduction in the hazards of marine transportation permitted the resumption of coastwise traffic and imports from South America. Nationwide restrictions in the use of gasoline and fuel oils became necessary as military demands for all petroleum products mounted to high levels.

Jan 1, 1944

By D. J. McAdam, G. W. Geil, D. H. Woodard, W. D. Jenkins

INTRODUCTION IN a series of papers, the authors and their associates have shown the influence of four important factors on the technical cohesion limit.3-16 By "technical cohesion limit" is meant the technically determinable resistance to fracture. The four important factors are the stress system, plastic deformation, temperature, and the strain rate. The influence of any one of these factors may be represented by a curve of cohesion limits, although only one point on the curve may represent actual fracture. As the term "fracture stress" has come into general use with the same significance as technical cohesion limit, the authors are here using the shorter term with the understanding that it does not always refer to actual fracture. The previously-mentioned series of papers contains ample evidence that plastic extension increases the fracture stress of any polycrystalline metal. In a recent paper of the series,15 moreover, it has been shown that the effect of plastic deformation on the fracture stress cannot be attributed to reorientation of internal flaws but is a work-strengthening effect, similar to the effect on the flow stress.[$] Plastic deformation of steels, however, may not only cause work hardening, but may result in additional hardness because of strain aging. Some evidence that strain aging affects not only the flow stress but also the fracture stress, has been presented in a recent paper.14 In that paper, a study is made of the influence of plastic deformation at room temperature on the fracture stress of ferritic steels at -188°C. The study is based on the results of two-stage tests. In the first stage each specimen was extended a predetermined amount at room temperature; in the second stage the specimen was tested to fracture in liquid air. In most of these tests the specimen remained in the testing machine during the interval of about one hour between the first and second stages, it was kept under a tensile load of about 500 lb and maintained at liquid air temperature. The effects of various amounts of plastic deformation on the fracture stress were thus determined and curves were obtained to represent the influence of plastic deformation at room temperature on the stress at brittle fracture in liquid air.14 Two specimens of ingot iron, however, were removed from the testing machine at the end of the first stage and several days elapsed before the specimens were tested to fracture in liquid air. As shown in Fig 8 of that paper," the points representing fracture of these specimens are far above the curve representing the results of two-stage tests without a rest interval between the stages. The evidence thus indicated that the fracture stresses of these two specimens were increased not only by the work-strengthening, but also by strain aging. The present paper presents results of further investigation of the influence of strain aging on the fracture stress. There are two kinds of aging of steel.

Jan 1, 1948

By K. L. Sehgal

Minerals are the basis of modern civilization: their exploitation and effective utilization are a yard- stick for measuring the comparative prosperity of different nations. This is particularly true in India where industrialization is just beginning to pick up speed. Production targets for our Fourth Five Year Plan (1966-71) are far ahead of the figures for, say, 1950 (the year we won independence) and show the extent of the expansion. Many problems remain to be solved, not least of which is the shortage of raw materials. India is no novice at utilizing minerals. Archaeological ruins at Harappa and at other historical places in the country show evidence of the fact that the ancient Indians not only knew the art of winning minerals from the ground over 6000 years ago-they were also well acquainted with metallurgy. Some of the present sites of mineral exploitation are the same as those our ancestors worked for many centuries.

Jan 9, 1965

By Joseph P. Hodgson

Since about 70 per cent. of the total cost of mining is due to underground work which is out of sight, it is essential that expenditures should be made here to the best advantage. A great many mistakes have been made which were expensive, but perhaps these have not even been detected by mine owners. In the future these may be minimized to some extent, especially if there is cooperative effort on the part of each employee. I have been interested in this subject for some years and have tried to deduce principles and methods. These have proved highly advantageous and may also be of help to others. Some corporations, like the United States Steel, and the Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co., have done a great deal in this field by having stated meetings of their organizations, with the view to interchanging ideas among their men and educating them along the lines of concerted effort. Since no man knows all about the various branches of mining, it is advisable that frequent meetings of the operating department be held for the interchange of ideas and that all members of the organization have an opportunity to express themselves on the various subjects. It has often been found that in discussions between heads of departments, foremen and bosses, many valuable suggestions may be obtained which promote the best interests of the company. The method regarded as the most conducive to cooperative effort, and pursued by the organization, is to analyze and develop the different phases of various mining subjects at regular meetings. Nine Foremen's Dinners In the latter half of 1912, the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Go. gave monthly dinners to the men in the operating departments. Those who attended were superintendents, foremen, shift bosses, engineers, geologists, and heads of all departments, making a total of about 75 men. After the dinner, lectures were given on subjects which pre-

Jan 1, 1917

By Robert E. Palmer

The Hawkesworth detachable drill steel shank and bit were invented by A. L. Hawkesworth, while he was a mechanical foreman for the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., at Butte, Mont. Mr. Hawkesworth died on June 16, 1925, at the time that his invention was practically a proved success. The first application for patents was made by him in November, 1918, and the bit is now being manufactured under patents issued in 1922 and 1923. The credit for its development in the early stages belongs to A. L. Hawkesworth, Roy S. Alley, Harry A. Gallwey, E. J. Bowman and various officials of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. Later improvements, manufacturing problems and the direct usage in the mines were originated and perfected by the mechanical department under C. D. Woodward, E. R. Borcherdt, head of the Rock Drill Equipment Department, Robert E. Kelly of the Mechanical Department, and various operating department heads of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of these officials in the preparation of this paper. Comparison of Costs Using Regular Drill Steel and Detachable Drill Steel In 1922 production was satisfactory and sufficient enough to warrant a complete installation in an operating mine. The study and tests were made at the Badger State mine, the production of which averaged 1200 tons of ore per day. E. R. Borcherdt, head of the rock drill equipment department, was in direct charge of the trials, installation, operating problems and records during the entire .period, arid still continues in that position. This mine is a typical Butte mine, operated through a standard four-compartment shaft, served by a double drum hoist and an auxiliary hoist. The texture of the ground and ore has all the variations from soft to very hard granite and sulfide ore with production from levels between the

Jan 1, 1930

By Michael Perch, Charles C. Russell

Nearly 75 per cent of the total coke production in the United States in 1940 was consumed in blast furnaces. In 1939 the percentage was 69.9, and in 1938 it was 61.3. To produce a net ton of pig iron 1757 lb. of coke was required in 1940 and 1760 lb. in 1939. These figures indicate how dependent the production of pig iron is upon the production of coke. The rate of iron production is in some measure influenced by the physical and chemical characteristics of the coke. Blast-furnace operators believe that the physical properties of coke profoundly influence the operation of the furnace. Although it is true that coke of a wide variety of physical properties is used in American blast furnaces, the periodic fluctuation of these properties is one of the causes of irregularity of blast-furnace operation. The purpose of this paper is to present a broad picture of the physical properties of by-product coke that are generally considered to be important by coke-oven and blast-furnace operators. Effects of the kind of coal used, the preparation of the coal, the rate of coking, and other factors will be considered. Of all these variables, the kind of coal used is by far the most important. In this discussion use will be made of the method of coal classification by rank' standardized by the American Society for Testing Materials. Although this method of classification has been an American stand¬ard for several years, it has not been given the attention it deserves, especially in connection with the selection of coal for production of coke. Despite the fact that many producers of blast-furnace coke are limited to some particular source or sources of coal, a good understanding of the principles involved in setting up the standard method of classification may lead to a better appreciation of the causes of changes in coke characteristics. Furthermore, where it is necessary to select new coals as a substitute for the original supply, this method of classification can be of great assistance. The data presented have been gathered from many sources, but no attempt has been made to cover the vast literature. Instead, some of the more important data have been selected to show how coals and their carbonization affect some of the physical properties of coke. It must be emphasized that generalizations concerning the behavior of coking coals are presented and that individual coals may vary widely from the specific behavior depicted. Nevertheless, it is believed that the data illustrate certain typical behaviors. Neither was it possible to cover completely all the factors involved; for example, the macroscopic constituents of coal are believed to have important effects on the physical properties of coke, but since there is little information available for such study, and since vitrain, clarain, and durain are neither

Jan 1, 1944

By C. E. Wood, E. P. Barrett, T. L. Joseph

The invention of the Bessemer converter process in 1856 added great impetus to the manufacture of steel and is one of the outstanding contributions to process metallurgy. Although the process of refining pig iron by passing air through the molten metal bears the name of Henry Bessemer, it should be mentioned in passing that William Kelley of Eddysville, Ky., worked on the process as early as 1847. Kelley was granted a patent on the process in 1857, inasmuch as he was able to prove priority in discovery.' After considerable litigation in 1865 the respective interests of Kelley and Bessemer were combined. On Sept. 10, 1856, Robert Mushet of England obtained his first patent on the application of manganese to cast steel. Mushet anticipated trouble in purifying iron by passing currents of air through it: His patent specified that steel made in this way often contained flaws and was red short or cold short. Mushet understood the refining of pig iron into steel well enough to realize the difficulties likely to be cncountered from oxidation of the iron. Mushet was not only an inventor; he was also an investigator. He understood the principle of selective oxidation which takes place in the converter process, and he realized therefore that the remedy for over-oxidation was attainable if a suitable metal could be found at a reasonable cost and in sufficient quantities. His first experiments were made in small crucibles holding a few ounces of metal. Later his work was conducted on a larger scale and with complete success. Manganese had been used in making steel a quarter of a century before the converter

Jan 1, 1927

By C. M. Schwartz, A. E. Austin, W. B. Wilson

High-temperature X-ray diffraction studies were conducted with Th-U alloys with up to 10 wt pet U. The solid solubility of uranium in thorium as a function of temperature was determined by the method of lattice parameters. Thorium will dissolve up to 2.5 wt pet U at 950°, 4.5 wt pet U at 1150°, and 7.5 wt pet U at 1250°C. Determinations were made of the temperature of the transition of thorium and of the effect of uranium upon the transition. The a to ß transition for thorium was observed to occur at 1330' ±20°C. Mean coefficients of expansion were calculated for thorium and two alloys, and for ThO2 in contact with the thorium, using X-ray lattice-parameter data. Values obtained at 950° C for thorium and Tho2 were 12.1 and 9.40 X 10-6 per OC, respectively. Impurities obtained during the X-ray exposure were identified by diffraction and were essentially Tho2 and ThC, with two additional unknown phases being detected. The effect of the impurities upon the results is discussed. DIRECT investigation (i.e., high-temperature X-ray diffraction studies) of the phase diagram of thorium-rich uranium alloys has been shown to be necessary since recent work1 - has disclosed the presence of an allotropic transformation near 1400°C in pure thorium with the room temperature face-centered-cubic phase transforming to a body-cen-tered-cubic structure at the elevated temperature. The effect upon the transition of the addition of uranium to thorium and of the solubility of uranium in thorium at high temperatures remained unknown, yet was of interest in understanding fabrication procedures and elevated temperature use. The present work was undertaken to provide information in this area by determining the transition temperature, the effect of uranium on the transition temperature, and the solubility of uranium in thorium as a function of temperature. Experimental Work The high-temperature diffraction data were obtained using a camera especially designed for the purpose3 and capable of reaching temperatures in excess of 2000°C at pressures as low as 1 x 10." mm Hg. Temperature regulation was provided by regulating the power input to ±0.1 pet variation, and by regulating the water flow through the camera jacket to provide a constant thermal load. The X-ray sample was a rod nominally 80 mil diam, which was further turned down to 20 mil and then etched to 18 mil over 1/2 in. of one end. This was placed in the sample holder and mounted on the camera so that the smaller part was surrounded by a cylindrical tantalum-sheet radiation-type heating element. Diffraction from the sample was recorded on film after passing through a slot in the heating element and radiation-baffle shield and through beryllium vacuum windows. The X-ray film mounting was of the Straumanis type4 with a camera diameter of 114.59 mm. Since previous work of Chiotti' indicated that impurities considerably alter the transition temperature, chemical analysis of the arc melted iodide crystal-bar thorium samples was obtained prior to testing. The analysis disclosed the material to contain as low as 0.001 ±0,0002 wt pet H and 0.007 ±0.001 wt pet 0. Carbon was 0.003 wt pet and nitrogen less than 0.002 wt pet. This material was sealed in mild steel in an inert atmosphere and subsequently hot rolled to 3/8-in. diam rods at a temperature of 732°C. Following removal of the jacket, the material was pickled and cold swaged to 1/8-in. rods, from which the diffraction samples were prepared. The alloys were similarly prepared, with the uranium being added during arc melting. The uranium analyses of the alloys prepared appear in Table I. The experimental procedure for diffraction examination of the three samples of high-purity thorium differed from those of the Th-U alloys. The original practice, later modified, consisted of pumping down the camera with the diffusion pump on and then admitting liquid nitrogen to the cold trap of the system. This was modified for the Th-U alloys by maintaining liquid nitrogen in the cold trap at all times before and while the diffusion pump was heated. This minor change produced a reduction in the amount of carbon pickup by the sample during exposure to the diffusion-pump vapors. The sample was brought to the desired test temperature and exposed for 21/2 hr at pressures which were usually 2 x 10-6 mm Hg, or lower. Exposures were made at

Jan 1, 1959

By J. Randel Hill

The 64th Texas Legislature passed the "Texas Surface Mining and Reclamation Act," Chapter 131, Texas Natural Resources Code (subsequently referred to as "the Act"), at a point in time when little surface mining had taken place within the state. Thus, enactment of regulatory control governing mining operations in our state has, for the most part, preceded widespread, intensive mining activity. I should point out that the statute applies only to the extraction of coal, lignite, uranium and uranium ore. A recent opinion rendered by the Attorney General's office has stated that extraction of the named elements, when it occurs incidental to the extraction of other materials, e.g., clay, is not not an activity subject to the Act. An important theme of the Act, frequently overlooked in other environmentally oriented legislation, is recognition of the Act's affect on the mining industry. The Act states that "the extraction of minerals by surface mining operations is a basic and essential activity making an important contribution to the economic well-being of the state and nation" and, in reference to reclamation being accomplished contemporaneously with mining, provides a recognition that "the extraction of minerals by responsible mining operations is an essential and beneficial economic activity." This legislative recognition is, of course balanced against the need for proper mined land reclamation, the rights of surface owners, the need to guard against unreasonable degradation to land and water resources and numerous other actions or events that the Legislature wanted protected. Another rather pervasive general theme that is established in the Act is the concept that the agency is entitled to obtain whatever information, or take whatever action, that appears reasonably necessary to effectuate the purposes of the Act. This concept, coupled with the detailed requirements placed on mining operations in the portions of the Act dealing with Permit Applications, Reclamation Plan and Reclamation Standards, easily insures that surface mining activities can and will be regulated to the extent necessary. Section 131.102(b)(2) is probably the most relevant provision in the Act which deals with the preclusion of mined lands becoming waste lands. This portion of the Act states that the surface mining operator shall: ". . . restore the land affected to the same or a substantially beneficial condition. ." In this language the Legislature had made it abundantly clear that the abandoned or orphaned lands found in some of the Eastern states, will not be tolerated in this State, and provided the Commission with a degree of latitude to determine what condition would be appropriate in each individual mining situation. I bring this area of the Act to your attention because it is the area which has received the most inquiries and concern by operators, i.e. what does "substantially beneficial" constitute? The Commission's staff has spent a considerable amount of time wrestling with the statutory language "substantially beneficial" to determine the legislative intent and provide operators with guidance of what they can expect. In this regard, the most definitive criteria in our opinion lies in the Act's legislative hsitory. The Legislature had before it basically three reclamation standards namely: House Bill 656, considered to provide the most stringent reclamation standard and identical to Senate Bill 66; House Bill 1717 which was supported by industry spokesmen and was considered to contain the least stringent reclamation standard; and Senate Bill 55 which was adopted by the Legislature. During the Bill's initial hearing before the House Environmental Affairs Committee, the House sponsor of the Senate Bill 55, which was the Bill eventually adopted, made the following statement: (I am quoting verbatim from the Committee's transcript although substituting the speaker's reference to the authors names with the Bill's numbers.) "An example of the differing approaches of the four bills can be seen in the area of reclamation standards and this is critical. House Bill 656, talking about restoring the surface of the land, House Bill 656 has this statement: 'At least fully capable of supporting the use to which it was capable of supporting prior to any mining or any higher or better use.' In other words you have to restore it to the level it was prior to the mining. Senate Bill 55: 'Restore the land to the same or substantially beneficial use.' Substantially beneficial use. (Emphasis his) House Bill 1717 says: 'Restore insofar as practical to appropriate beneficial post-mining use.' So that House Bill 1717 said to, 'restore insofar as practical to appropriate beneficial use. I think that's too weak, whereas I think the House Bill 656 that would call you to restore it to at least the use it had prior to the mining may also be too tight the other way. I think the Senate Bill 55 approach is down the middle of the road which says that you do restore it to the 'same or substantially beneficial use,' is a proper way to go there." Therefore, the conclusion that we have drawn from the legislative history of the bill is that the extent of reclamation required by "substantially beneficial" may be something other than the use it was prior to

Jan 1, 1979

By Nelson Severinghaus

Consolidated Quarries Corp. must conduct operations for an average sales price of $1.25 per ton, about the same price at which stone was sold 25 years ago when the dollar was worth twice what it is now. To maintain success in a competitive business, the company must solve the usual production problems, which will be discussed here in the order they occur in the flowsheet. Most crushed stone quarries must first remove soil and decomposed rock. Although seasons of lower sales sometimes release regular quarry excavating and haulage equipment for this purpose, overburden is often too extensive for this method to be used. In such cases, special equipment must be assigned or the job may be contracted. As many earthmoving contractors have heavy duty specialized equipment well suited to overburden removal, they should be seriously considered before the job is undertaken. Pockets of clay beneath peaks of hard stone sometimes defy mechanized removal. Pick and shovel laborers at this point might be supplanted by more ingenious use of pumps and water or some other mechanical means. Where overburden is extremely heavy or difficult to remove, underground mining must be considered.

Mar 1, 1956

By C. H. Brehaut, W. N. Taylor, R. S. Douglas, H. A. Shannon

The name for this new method of mining is derived from a composition of Horizontal, Radial, Diamond, and the drilling is from raises. This method, worked out at Copper Mountain, B.C., is believed to be distinct in many features from other known methods. Geology The ore deposits of copper Mountain are related to the copper Mountain stock, which is an ideal example of the magmatic in in that it grades from a basic gabbro at the border to an almost pure orthoclase-pegmatite core. The "contact" ore bodies lie along the contact of the gabbro and an older complex of volcanies and sediment termed the "Wolfe Creek" formation. These older rocks, collectively referred to as greenstone, had been fractured prior to the intrusion of the stock and were highly metamorphosed during the intrusion. The "outlying" ore bodies are somewhat different in character, though a similar structural pattern prevails. It is believed that a deep-seated magma of which the Copper Mountain stock is a part has given off solutions that caused a partial graniti-zation of some of the volcanies. Mining problems are caused further by the presence of a series of soft barren dikes intersecting a great many of the ore bodies, which are about 30 ft. wide, strike north-south, and dip at a high angle to the east; and are further increased by the presence of four major faults, with a great many minor faults running at acute angles from them. Fault zones average 8 ft. in width, and consist of gouge and breccia. They strike northeast and dip steeply to the northwest. The faults cut through the ore zones and the dikes, and continue on into the gabbro. The general mine structure with two types of Ore bodies, bounded by weak walls and intersected by several series of soft barren dikes and major faults, indicated that a method of mining should be devised that would remove the ore at low cost with the least disturbance of the waste walls and dikes. , Theoretical Estimate of Stoping with the Diamond Drill After consideration of various methods, the most suitable one appeared to be horizontal drilling to break the ore in a manner similar to shrinkage stoping Drilling vertical holes or rings from a bench and breaking to an open slot was eliminated because the weak walls of ore, dike or waste would not permit this type of opening. It was then decided to drill either horizontal radial holes from a raise or parallel holes from a slot cut across the ore body. After discussion, the latter method was believed unsuitable, for the following reasons:

Jan 1, 1946

By A. H. Geisler, J. H. Keeler

Preferred orientations in rolled and annealed titanium sheets were determined by the Geiger counter spectrometer X-ray diffraction technique. Five annealing textures dependent upon the temperature range of annealing were found, and in order of increasing annealing temperature pendent upon the temperature range are: 1—a deformation like texture, 2—a rotated inorder a-recrystallization temperature texture, 3-a retained u-recrysraIlization texture, on annealing at lower temperatures of the ß-region, 4—a transformation texture based on recrystallized a and predicted by the Burgers' relationship, and 5—a ,ß-cube texture. These results are examined in terms of current theories of recrystallization textures. UMEROUS investigators have described the tex- ture obtained by cold rolling the hexagonal metals, titanium, zirconium, and beryllium, which have c/a ratios less than that of ideal packing, 1.633. The basal planes are rotated out of the rolling plane, about the rolling direction, so that the basal poles are tilted toward the transverse direction as shown schematically in Fig. la. In all instances but one,' it was also reported that the [1010] direction was parallel to the rolling direction (see Fig. lb). Hot rolling has been reported as causing a similar tilt of the basal poles in the transverse direction (see Fig. la) and causing the [1010] direction also to be parallel to the rolling direction as shown schematically in Fig. lb. Annealing after deformation does not appreciably change the tilt of the basal poles in the transverse direction." Beryllium2-7 continues to have the [1010] direction in the rolling direction after annealing, and similar observations for titanium and zirconium' . have been reported for annealing at fairly low temperatures, again as in Fig. lb. At higher annealing temperatures, however, the recrystallized grains of titanium" and zirconium have an orientation such that the [1120] direction is approximately in the rolling direction, although the basal poles are still inclined in the transverse direction. Figs. la and lc show the resulting orientations schematically. This change in orientation has been described as a nominally ±30° rotation of the hexagonal crystallites about the basal poles of the cold rolled texture and is apparent from the results which are summarized in Table I for investigations with the X-ray diffraction technique employing film. The angles y, , and ß are indicated in Fig. 2 which represents the stereographic projection of (1070) poles for the mean orientation of a pole figure. Texture determinations for titanium using the Geiger counter spectrometer have provided similar results except that in some instances additional components of the texture were proposed, as shown by the summary of data in the upper half of Table 11. On the other hand, the spectrometer technique, when applied to zirconium,* has revealed a splitting Recently completed studies of the textures of annealed zirconium", show zirconium to possess textures very similar to those reported here for titanium. Therefore, much of this discussion will include zirconium by virtue of its close similarity to titanium in pref erred orientations. of the intense areas of the pole figure for samples annealed at 600°C. This splitting could be described by a 7" rotation of the tilt axis about the normal to the rolling plane. Such a splitting for the annealed texture relative to the cold rolled texture was not observed in other determinations for either zirconium or titanium using the less sensitive film X-ray methoe and makes the relationship between the two types of texture more complex than the simple rotation about the (0001) pole based on film work. The more precise investigations on zirconium permit the descriptions in the lower part of Table 11, which show that the texture depends quantitatively on the temperature of annealing. When zirconium is annealed at temperatures up to 400°C, the texture is similar to the cold rolled texture, while annealing in the range 500" to 900°C produces a texture which is only approximately described as [11%] in the rolling direction. More precisely described results for zirconium show that the two types of splitting ( 1—about an axis in the rolling plane through an angle given in the second column in Table II and 2—about the normal to the rolling plane through an angle given in the third column of Table 11) depend on annealing temperature. The [1120 is the rolling direction only when the annealing temperature is in the vicinity of 900°C

Jan 1, 1957

By S. C. Schaeker, A. W. Schlechten, A. H. Larson

PARRAVANO and Malquori' studied the equilibrium of H2S-Hz with molybdenum and its lowest sulfide which they believed to be MoS2. Mc Cabe' has shown that its composition is actually Mo2S3 and determined its dissociation pressure by means of Knud-sen effusion measurements. Stubbles and Richard- son3 have recently studied the equilibrium of gas mixtures of H2S-HZ with the two-phase solid mixtures of Mo-MozS3 and Mo2S3-MoS2. The latter investigators found that M02s3 deviated slightly from the stoichiometric composition, but they did not determine the homogeneous region of the disulfide phase. Morimoto and Kullerud, studied the Mo-S system by quenching, microscope, and X-ray methods and concluded that the disulfide is stoichiometric. The present investigation was concerned with the measurement of the sulfur vapor pressure variation with composition at 1100°C in the homogeneous region of "MoS2". These measurements were made by reacting: 1) molybdenum powder (99.97 pct Moj with sulfur vapor, and 2) MoS1.g9 (formed by reaction of Mo + H2S) with sulfur vapor in a quartz capsule. Conditions were controlled to form an equilibrated phase within the homogeneous region of the disulfide. The quartz capsule was sealed off initially under a vacuum and the residual gases were gettered by titanium powder contained in one end of the capsule. A mixture of Mo + S or MOS,., + S was in the other end. The section containing the titanium powder was heated for 24 hr at 700°C and then removed by flame sealing. The end of the capsule containing the charge was then heated to 1100°C. The other end of the capsule was maintained at a temperature which would produce the desired sulfur pressure in the capsule (liquid sulfur distilled from the charge mixture was retained in this end). After equilibration, the capsule was removed from the heating assembly and rapidly air-cooled. It is assumed that equality existed between the total sulfur pressures (PT) in the two ends of the capsule and not between the partial pressures of the different molecular species (S, SZ, Three separately controlled heating elements were used to maintain the proper temperature gradient over the length (approximately 12 in.) of the capsule. A thermocouple-Wheelco "Capacitrol" system was used for temperature control of the two end heating elements within 2"C. The center heating element was controlled directly by a " Power -stat". Separate controlling and measuring thermocouples were used for both end heating elements. Pt-Pt(l0 pct Rh) thermocouples were used for 1100°C and Chromel-Alumel thermocouples were used for lower-temperature control and measurement of the assembly. Silver foil was wrapped around the end of the capsule containing the liquid sulfur to insure a constant temperature zone. The thermal gradient over the entire length of the capsule was measured to: 1) ascertain that the length of the constant temperature zone of the liquid-sulfur end and the sulfide end was sufficient, and 2) ascertain that the liquid-sulfur zone was the zone of lowest temperature. The data obtained in this investigation are shown in Fig. 1 and Table I. The total sulfur pressure (PT) and p(S2) were calculated from the data of Braune et UZ.~ The compositions of the equilibrated disul-

Jan 1, 1964

By H. C. Jennison

Two distinct types of defects occur at times in copper wire as a result of the use of dies of improper design or undesirable wire-drawing practice. The conditions under which these defects may be produced, as well as precautions to be taken in order to prevent them, have been known to The American Brass Co. for many years. The quality of the copper wire bars and rods has too often and unjustly been held responsible for these particular defects and it is to correct any such belief that this paper is presented. An extremely high quality of electrolytic copper has been supplied to the trade by all refineries for the last 20 years at least. The purity of the copper would average well above 99.900 per cent. The casting of the wire bars has been handled in a generally satisfactory manner. The bars have been cast sound, with a flat to slightly crowning set and have been free from sloppy edges, cold sets, etc. In other words, the wire bars have met A. S. T. M. specifications and have been generally satisfactory. For the most part, they have been everything that could be desired from a quality standpoint yet most of the wire mills in this country and in Europe have at times held the quality of the copper responsible for the two types of defects described in this paper. As a matter of fact, these defects are produced entirely in the wire mills. The author has visited many of the large wire mills in the United States and in Europe to investigate these defects. In some cases the trouble has been so serious that the wire mill has ceased operations. At times the wire mills are reluctant to believe that they are responsible for the defective product. The effect of die design, wire-drawing practice, etc., upon the quality of copper wire has received' little study on the part of wire mills, particularly those that have commenced operations in the last few years.

Jan 1, 1930

By Lysle E. Shaffer

INCREASING attention has been given in the last decade to the possibilities of mine leasing in the West. The practice as described in this article does not refer to the leasing of entire properties for corporate operation. It is intended to deal rather with the advantages and problems incident to leasing portions of properties to individuals who themselves, individually or in groups, do the actual mining and transportation of the ore. These individuals are sometimes called "leasers" and sometimes called "tributors." The contracts under which they work set up an independent relationship of lessor and leaser, between themselves and the mineowner or operator. This relationship has many advantages to both sides over those created by the ordinary relationship of employer and employe. From the standpoint of the owners there is no liability on independent contractors for industrial injuries, social security taxes, unemployment taxes, or the manifold restrictions of the Federal Labor Relations and Wage Hour Acts and similar state acts where they exist. As the leaser's income depends on the quantity and quality of ore produced, there is a distinct incentive for maximum production of a good grade of ore. This in turn promotes careful mining of the areas under lease. Ordinarily in mining, labor cost is a high percentage of the total cost of operation. Under a leasing system, even if the leasers be allowed to retain half of the gross values that they produce, and the owner or operator gets half, in the case of marginal ore bodies this is ordinarily more than the lessor would realize if the property were worked by day labor. In some instances mineral deposits under a leasing system may become ore, whereas under a day-labor system they would

Jan 1, 1948

By David LeCount Evans

Not only E. B. Mayo but also W. C. Lacy, who apparently urged the preparation of this analysis, is to be commended. Regional thinking of this type is needed to assure future success in the never-ending search for new mineralized and petroliferous districts. As is usually the case, here is a regional study that will be read by the mining geologist alone. It is ironic that several of the trends established in this study have suggested themselves in northern mid-continent, detailed, and regional studies. These, where established, have offered new keys to petroleum exploration and have provided a possible basis for unraveling a number of broad generalities. The oil geologists, active in Colorado, Kansas, and Oklahoma, would find much food for thought in Mr. Mayo's projections.

Jan 6, 1959