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By M. Bevis, E. O. Fearon, P. C. Rowlands

Fe-Ni and Fe-Ni-C martensite specimens have been deformed in compression at room temperature and the habit planes of operative deformation twins determined by two-surface optical trace analysis. The full orientations of the martensite crystals were determined from divergent X-ray beam diffraction patterns. The experimental results are in excelled agreement with predicted twinning modes. In particular, the habit planes of some deformation twins in bcc martensites are consistent with a "Type XI compound'' twinning mode with Kl, Kz, 71, 77~ elements given by {5, 8, 11) {ioi}, (33) (ill) Tetragonal derivatives of this mode are operative in bct martensites. UnUSUAL deformation twinning modes have been reported by Richman' to occur in Fe-Ni-C martensites with bcc and bct structures. The twin habit planes were determined by single-surface trace analysis (pole locus method) and the remaining twinning elements were determined from the geometry of twin-twin intersections. The indices assigned to the observed habit planes are (3 101, "(089)" and "{0, 1,13)" or "{1,2,7} ", and only in the first case do the twinning elements correspond to a predicted twinning mode. This is mode 1.4 in the paper by Bevis et al. The results presented in Ref. 2 indicate that previously unpublished bcc and bct modes should be operative in preference to the (130) mode and anomalous modes reported by Richman. In view of these results and the uncertainties involved in determining habit planes from single-surface trace analysis and twinning elements from twin-twin intersections5 a two-surface trace analysis of deformation twins in Fe-Ni and Fe-Ni-C martensites has been carried out. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Two alloys with compositions Fe-23 pct Ni-0.6 pct C and Fe-30.4 pct Ni were prepared from 4N pure materials by induction melting under a vacuum of 10"5 mm Hg. The alloys were homogenized at 1350'~ for 5 days. Both of these alloys are austenitic at room temperature with M, temperature - — 50"C. The aus-tenite grain size of the Fe-Ni-C alloy was approximately 300 to 400 p. The Fe-Ni alloy was remelted in a vertical tube furnace and the melt lowered slowly from the hot zone of the furnace to produce s ingle -crystal austenite specimens. Specimens approximately 10 by 5 by 5 mm were cut from the ingots and quenched to various temperatures below the Ms temperature. The specimens were elec-tropolished in a 10 pct perchloric acetic electrolyte before being deformed in compression at room temperature. Martensite plates which exhibited profuse deformation twinning were selected for analysis and the specimen polished on a second surface such that the two surfaces which contained the martensite plate enclosed an obtuse angle of approximately 145 deg. The specimens were then electropolished to reveal the traces of the deformation twins on both surfaces. The full orientations of the martensite crystals were determined using a divergent X-ray beam technique (Kossel line technique) employing an AEI SEM2 electron probe microanalyzer. Details of this technique which include a detailed description of the Kossel camera attachment to the microanalyzer used in the present experiments have been discussed elsewhere.3 Only additional details relevant to this investigation are discussed here. The specimens were mounted with one surface normal to the incident electron beam as illustrated schematically in Fig. 1. The martensite plates to be analyzed were located using the normal scanning equipment of the microanalyzer. The position of the electron beam and hence the position of the source of divergent X-rays generated within the crystal could be located to within 1 p. Exposure times of approximately 8 to 10 min were required for back-reflection Kossel patterns and it was found that useful diffraction patterns could be obtained consistently from heavily deformed martensite plates. A reference line (carbon contamination mark) produced on the two surfaces of the specimen by scanning the electron beam in a direction having a known relationship with the reference !ine in the X-ray camera enabled the full orientation of the crystals to be determined. Martensite plates with widths as small as 8 p could be oriented using this procedure. The Kossel line patterns were interpreted using the charts developed by Rowlands and ~evis~ as generally

Jan 1, 1969

By J. J. Forbes

'"THE Federal Coal Mine Safety Act (public Law T. 552. 82nd Congress) was approved oil July 16, 1952. It incorporates, as Title I, the Coal Mine Inspectio1.1 and Investigation Act of May 7. 1941 (Public Law 49, 77th Congress), which gave Federal inspectors only the right to enter. coal mines for inspection and investigation purposes but no power to require compliance with their recommendations. Title 11 contains the enforcement provisions of the act; its purpose is to prevent major disasters in coal mines from explosions, fires. inundations. and man-trip 01. man-hoist accidents. At this point a brief account of events that preceded the enactment of the Federal Coal Mine Safety Act seems appropriate. The hazardous nature of coal mining was recognized by the Federal Govermment as long ago as 1865, when a bill to create a Federal Mining Bureau was introduced in Congress. Little was done, however, until a series of appalling coalmine disasters during the first decade of this century provoked a demand for Federal action. As a result an act of Congress established a Bureau of Mines in the Department of the Interior on July 1, 1910. The act made it clear that one of the foremost activities of the Bureau should be to improve health and safety in the mineral industries. One of the first projects selected by the small folce of engineers and technicians then employed was to determine the causes of coal-mine explosions and the means to prevent them. By investigations aftel mine disasters the fundamental causes and means of prevention were soon discovered, and the coal mining industry was informed accordingly. However, despite this knowledge and the enactment of State laws and the Federal Coal Mine Inspection and Investigation Act of 1941, mine disasters continued to occur with disheartening frequency and staggering loss of life. The devastating explosion at the Orient No. 2 mine on December 21, 1951, resulted in the death of 119 men. The Orient disaster rekindled the memory of the Centralia. Ill., disaster of March 25. 1947, which caused the death of 111 coal miners. These two tragedies ultimately brought about enactment of the Federal Coal Mine Safety Act. The act is a compromise measure. Senator Matthew M. Neely of West Virginia and Congressman Melvin Priec of Illinois introduced almost identical versions in the 82nd Congress, but they were considered too drastic. The final version was introduced by Congressman Samuel K. McConnel, Jr., of Pennsylvania, after considerable discussion and amendment in committee hearings. It was passed by the Congress and became effective when signed by the President on July 16, 1952. The act is somewhat limited in scope because it applies only to approximately 2000 coal mines in the United States and Alaska that employ regularly 15 or more individuals underground. It exempts approximately 5300 mines employing regularly fewer than 15 individuals underground and all strip mines, of which there are about 800. Moreover, it covers only conditions and practices that may lead to major disasters from explosion, fire, inundation, or man-trip or man-hoist accidents. According to Bureau records, such accidents have resulted in less than 10 pct of all the fatalities in coal mines. It is important to mention that the law is not designed to prevent the day-to-day type of accidents that have caused the remaining 90 pct or more of the fatalities, because it was the specific intention of the Congress to reserve the hazards which caused them to the jurisdiction of the coal-producing states. Many who opposed any Federal legislation that would give the Federal inspectors authority to require compliance with mine safety regulations claimed that such legislation would usurp or infringe upon States' rights. To assure that the principle of States' rights would be preserved, the act provides for joint Federal-State inspections when a state desires to cooperate in such activities. The Director of the Bureau of Mines is required by the act to cooperate with the official mine-inspection or safety agencies of the coal-producing states. The act provides further that any state desiring to cooperate in making joint inspections may submit a State plan for carrying out the purposes of this part of the act. Certain requirements are listed: these must be met by a state before the plan can be accepted. The Director of the Bureau of Mines, however, is required to approve any State plan which complies with the specified provisions. The Director may withdraw his approval and declare such a plan inoperative if he finds that the State agency is not complying with the spirit and intent of any provision of the State plan. When this paper was prepared, agreements for joint Federal-State inspections had been entered into with Wyoming and Washington. A few other states have indicated their desire to submit a State plan and negotiations toward that end are now under way. Reluctance to enter into such agreements may be due to the mine operators' knowledge that in the states that adopt a cooperative plan they are prohibited from applying to the Director of the Bureau of Mines for annulment or revision of an order issued by a Federal inspector and must appeal directly to the Federal Coal Mine Safety Board of Review for such action. Experience has proved that review by the Director as provided in the act is a less expensive and time-consuming procedure to all concerned than applying to the Board. Reluctance also may stem from the fact that joint Federal-State inspections somewhat restrict the movements of the State mine inspectors and tend to reduce the number of inspections of mines. Where a State plan is not adopted, the Federal coal mine inspector is responsible under the law to take one of two courses of action if he finds certain hazardous conditions during his inspections. The first action involves imminent danger. If a Federal inspector finds danger that a mine explosion, mine fire, mine inundation, or man-trip or man-hoist accident will occur in a mine immediately or before the imminence of such danger can be elim-

Jan 1, 1955

By C. A. Fisher

THE advent of the Rocky Mountain States into prominence as an oil-producing region is comparatively recent. Scarcely more than a decade has passed since the number of producing oilfields in this part of the country were few and their combined yield small and relatively unimportant. However, oil was discovered and recorded near the present site of Lander, Wyo., as early as 1833 and in 1867, on the comple-tion of the Union Pacific R. R., the site of this oil discovery was located, among other things, as a natural resource of economic importance. In that year a well was drilled for oil, to a depth of 480 ft., near Evanston, Wyo., but later was abandoned. In 1883, the Lander district witnessed the successful completion of the first oil well in the state. In Colorado, oil was first produced from shallow open wells near Canon City and sold to prospectors in 1864; in 1887, the Florence oilfield was discovered and a commercial production developed. While the Rocky Mountain States have never gained the prominence as an oil-producing region attained by the Pacific Coast, Mid-Continent, or Gulf fields, a substantial and increasing production is being taken from the Rocky Mountain province. At the close of 1923, the oil industry in this region has 38 oil and 21 gas fields producing, or capable of producing, oil or gas in a commercial way with a combined annual yield of nearly 47,000,000 bbl. of oil, a daily refining capacity aggregating about 90,000 bbl., upwards of 17,000,000 bbl. of crude in storage, and an 8-in. pipeline, nearing completion, 600 miles long which will connect the most prolific oilfield of the Rocky Mountain States with a trunk pipeline between Mid-Continent and the east at Carrollton, Mo. Several of the larger standard and independent operating companies are now represented in this region and, in the last ten years, there has been developed at Casper one of the large refining centers of the west. Fig. 1 illustrates the rise in production of four of the larger fields, also in the total production of the state; in addition there is given the yield of the larger fields of Wyoming and Montana for 1923.

Jan 3, 1924

By J. Hall Carpenter, James E. Lawver

Shortly after the passage of the Taconite Amendment in Minnesota, several mining companies announced their intention to build new magnetite taconite plants and another announced its intention to augment present facilities. It is clear that Minnesota will enjoy an expanding magnetite taconite industry, but despite the fact that the reserves are large, eventually they will have to be supplemented by oxidized deposits. Furthermore, not all producers have magnetite taconite reserves. Due to the extensive oxidation of most of the western part of the Mesabi Range, there are no large blocks of unaltered magnetite taconite that lend themselves to open pit operations. Unless a commercial process can be developed to concentrate the oxidized, or so- called "nonmagnetic", taconite and semi-taconite, the existing mines operating in the western part of the range will be forced to shut down when the direct shipping, wash and gravity ores are depleted, or are no longer salable, because of their poor quality compared to high-grade pellets. KNOWN PROCESSES COSTLY The enormous reserves of the oxidized iron- bearing formation have offered a tantalizing challenge to metallurgists for many years. In fact, several processes for concentrating certain types of oxidized ore have been successful at both laboratory and pilot plant level, but to date no process for concentrating semitaconite or oxidized taconite has reached commercial fruition. Magnetic roasting, followed by low-intensity magnetic separation1, has shown considerable promise because the high iron recovery makes the ratio of concentration of many of the oxidized ores more favorable than that of magnetite taconite. However, the capital and operating costs are high and, in many cases, a high- grade concentrate cannot be made without resorting to flotation of the magnetic concentrate. Hence, most research groups are investigating alternate methods of concentration with the hopes of reducing the cost.

Jan 9, 1965

The mining fraternity of North America was grieved and shocked to learn of the death of Dr. Willet G. Miller on Feb. 10, 1925. Doctor Miller was for many years the Provincial Geologist of Ontario and the one who more than any other had contributed by his personal work and the reports of his subordinates to the recent extraordinary mineral development of the Province. Doctor Miller was fifty-eight at the time of his decease. A man of unusually stalwart physique, he seemed destined to many years of useful service. His friends in both the American and Canadian Mining Institutes can with difficulty reconcile themselves to his loss. Doctor Miller was born in 1867 in Port Rowan, Ont., on the shores of Lake Erie. After preparation in the high school of his native town, he entered the University of Toronto and took his bachelor's degree in 1890. He pursued graduate studies in geology at Chicago, Harvard, and Heidelberg Universities. In 1893, he was first appointed lecturer and soon thereafter Professor of Geology in Queens University, Kingston, Ont., a chair which he held until 1902. He was then appointed Provincial Geologist of Ontario and was placed at the head of the Survey which was attached to the Department of Mines. Within the next year, 1903, he performed the service that made him famous. In the summer of 1903, in connection with the building of the Ontario Government Railway toward an objective on James Bay, veins had been noticed by construction parties just north of what is Cobalt Lake today, and in the rocky pass that is now traversed by the main line of the Canadian National Railway en route to Vancouver. The pink stain of cobalt bloom on the vein, known later as La Rose, caught the eye of a workman; in November, Doctor Miller recognized the silver in it, and brought the possibilities of the district to general attention. In December, he published an article in the Engineering and Mining Journal, stating that the veins could be worked at a handsome profit. During the winter and spring, the mining interest awoke, which resulted in the astonishingly productive silver district of Cobalt; but in which, Doctor Miller, because a government official, scrupulously refrained from having any financial interest whatever. Seldom has so high a sense of honor been manifested; and as the result, Doctor Miller commanded confidence and respect to an extraordinary degree. Hard on the discoveries at Cobalt came, in the next few years, those at the other famous camps in Northern Ontario; and step by step with them, reports issued from

Jan 1, 1925

Carlisle: Jim Knapp, has been the good friend of hundreds-maybe thousands-of mining men in these western states in the last 40 or 50 years. Jim is going to talk about many of the mining camps of Nevada, where he has done plenty in the mining field during the last 50 years. Jim, for a starter, how did you happen to go to Nevada? Knapp: In the summer of 1902, two years after the discovery at Tonopah, the professor of mining at Stanford sent out myself and another student by the name of Joe Miller to make a report on the camp. We left San Francisco at 8 p.m., got to Reno the next morning, then took the train to Sodaville, arriving about 4:30 in the afternoon. The first man I met when I arrived at the Tonopah station was Tasker Oddie, a gentleman who later became the Govenor of the State and then a United States Senator. Before we got away from the stage station I also met S. H. Brady, the first mining engineer to put out his shingle in Tonopah. He afterwards became general manager of the West End Mining Co.

Jan 3, 1965

By K. Stout, E. Van Eeckhout, L. Friel

Previous research at the Montana College of Mineral Science and Technology indicated that it is practical and economically feasible to place stiff back- fill in a cut-and-fill stope. This backfill would reduce wall closure and high stress buildup in pi1llars, thus alleviating rockburst potential. Three ;topes from the Sunshine Mine, of the Coeur d’Alene Mining District, were chosen for a test verification of this concept. Although the first stope was lever mined beyond the initial cut (for economic reasons), some vibrating wire stressmeter results were obtained and found to compare favorably with numerical predictions. Some other instrumentation devices were built and tested, but never installed .

Jan 1, 1984

By E. A. Kilinski

THE mineral production of Dutch Guiana has been of little consequence. This is due to several rea-sons. Inaccessibility is probably the greatest factor, for the Guianas are off the main commercial route. More or less closely related causes are the tropi-cal climate and the temperament of the inhabitants. Small quantities of gold have come from Dutch Guiana for many years, and recently bauxite has entered the list of exports. It is likely that other minerals may be found in commercial quantities. The Colony is on the northeast coast of South Amer-ica. It is known by two names, that of Dutch Guiana, and that of Surinam. - British Guiana (Demerara) adjoins it on the west, French Guiana (Cayenne) on the east, and Brazil on the south. It covers an area of approximately 58,000 sq. miles. The population, in the. neighborhood of a hundred thousand,, is small, but the variety of races and the sub-sequent mixtures of these is almost incredible. This unusual and colorful population readily falls into three groups, (1) those of the bush, (2) those of the planta-tion, and (3) those of the towns. The bush people con-sist of two groups, the Indians and the bush-negro. The Indians, of whom there are but a little over two thousand, keep entirely to themselves, lead a. very primi-tive existence, and rarely come into the towns. The bush-negro gives the touch of human life to the thick jungles. A descendant of escaped slaves of by-gone days, he is at present a proud, stalwart, happy, clean, moral, carefree and ease-loving individual-a distinct personality. Work is not his pal, although he does cheerfully that which is necessary for his existence. He will transport passengers and goods in his dugout and guide the stranger through the jungles, but that is all. The plantations employ some negroes, but more Javanese, imported as contract labor from the East Indies. Paramaribo, the only large town in Dutch Guiana, is the center of all government, commercial, and social activities. It has a motley population of 40,000, in-cluding negroes native to Dutch Guiana and many from all parts of the West Indies. In addition, there are Javanese, Chinese, and some Hindus. The two latter groups control most of the retail trade. The Dutch and a few scattered Germans are the only Europeans. All of the higher government offices are held by the Dutch, the others are filled from the ranks of the natives. Marriages and intermarriages among these various groups have produced types that defy almost any effort to decipher an individual's forbears. Dutch is the official language, but among the people a jargon known as Tahki-Tahki holds sway. English is taught in the schools, consequently many speak it, and many more can make themselves understood in that language.

Jan 2, 1928

By Frank M. Monroe, James R. Cost

The solubility of nitrogen in vanadium is determined from 275" to 575°C by measuring the height of the nitrogen internal friction peak of equilibrated V-N alloys. The proportionality constant at 275°C between the internal friction peak height (Q- 1) and the atom percent nitrogen in solution is found to be 0.095 per at. pct for nitrogen concentrations up to 0.8 at. pct. The heat of solution of the nitride in vanadium is 5500 cal per mole. The solubility of nitrogen in the Group V metals is discussed. LITTLE work has been performed on the vanadium-nitrogen terminal solid solution. Hahn1 found the solubility for nitrogen to be very small and reported the existence of a hexagonal phase of composition near that of V2N at the solubility limit. Rostoker and Yamarnoto2 reported the solubility to be at least 3.5 at. pct at the melting point and to be less than this value at 900°C. In addition, they reported from X-ray diffraction studies that nitrogen in solution produces tetragonality in the vanadium lattice. An X-ray study by Schonberg3 has confirmed the results of Hahn but indicated that the tetragonality observed by Rostoker and Yamamoto was due to the presence of oxygen in their specimens. Beatty4 has performed lattice parameter and hardness measurements on terminal solid solutions and found the upper limit of the solubility to be at least 0.66 at. pct N. No measurements have been made of the pressure-temperature-composition relationships (P-T-X) for the terminal solid solution. As a part of a research program on gas-metal equilibrium, an attempt was made to study the P-T-X relationships in the V-N system using both the internal friction and the gas equilibration methods which have been successful with the Nb(Cb)-N and Ta-N systems (see Ref. 5 for a review of this work). Extensive investigation, using the gas equilibration methods, showed this method not to be applicable with vanadium This was presumably due to the gettering action of vanadium sublimed on the walls of the Sieverts apparatus. Thus, the nitrogen pressure relationships with temperature and composition were not obtained. The internal friction methods were, however, found to be applicable, and the temperature-composition relationships are reported in this paper and compared with similar results for the Nb-N6 and Ta-N7 systems. The existence of a Snoek internal friction peak due to nitrogen in solution in vanadium has been clearly demonstrated. 8-10 Powers and Doyle found the peak to be at approximately 275°C for frequencies near 1 cps.8 In a subsequent paper10 they reported the proportionality constant at 275°C between the internal friction peak height (Q-1) and the concentration of ni- trogen in solution (in atom percent) as 0.06 per at. pct. The studies of Stanley and wert9 indicated qualitatively that the height of the Snoek peak decreased with aging at the peak temperature and thus suggested that internal friction methods were suitable for study of the solubility. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD The vanadium for this investigation was of particularly high purity. It was obtained from the Ames Laboratory of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Ames, Iowa in the form of a 1/2-in. diam, three pass zone-refined ingot. The electrical resistivity ratio (p300ºk/p4ºk) was 160. The initial composition was determined as follows: Carbon 200 ppm Oxygen 150 ppm Chromium <50 pprn Iron 125 ppm Silicon <50 ppm Other metallic 100 pprn The initial vanadium ingot was fabricated to 30-mil wire by swaging and wire drawing without the need of intermediate annealing. Lengths of this wire were then further purified (particularly for oxygen) by outgassing at 10-6 torr at 1400°C for 4 hr. The outgassing treatment resulted in specimens with a bamboo grain structure and a lustrous appearance. Desired amounts of nitrogen were added to the outgassed wires in a Sieverts apparatus in which known amounts of nitrogen were equilibrated with the wire at 1300°C. Nitrogen concentrations were produced in the desired range from less than 1 to 10 at. pct N. Monitoring of the partial pressure of nitrogen in the Sieverts apparatus indicated that at 1300°C equilibrium between the nitrogen gas and the vanadium was obtained within 10 min. Relatively rapid cooling from the nitrogen addition temperature was obtained simply by turning off the specimen heating current and cooling to room temperature in the partial pressure of nitrogen. Internal friction measurements of wire specimens were made under forepump vacuum in a torsional pendulum at frequencies near 1 cps. The torsional pendulum was of low thermal inertia and was designed so that specimens could be heated both by a conventional tube furnace and by the joule heating of a separate current through the wire specimen." Use of a static atmosphere of helium gas as a quenching medium made it possible to cut the specimen current, rapidly cool the specimen to the measurement temperature, and make a measurement of the internal friction in less than 1 min. Because of the large solubility of vanadium for nitrogen, the internal friction peak heights were in some cases greater than Q-1 = 0.1. This high damping resulted in an estimated relative uncertainty in the damping measurements of approximately 10 pct. X-ray analyses made to identify the precipitated ni-

Jan 1, 1970

By John W. Cabot

The following series of analyses, which may, be of interest to Bessemer-steel makers, is submitted as a contribution to the muchvexed discussion of manganese in Bessemer steel. They were made by the writer in the spring of 1881, at the works of the Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Company Limited, during a&apos; period of about eight days, part of. which time the rail-steel showed great variation in rolling qualities. During the first part of tile time in question, it rolled well; later on it began to roll wome until, finally, it cracked very badly, reaching its worst stage. After this it rapidly improved until it again rolled smoothly. During this time of transition from good rolling to bad, and hack to good again, the course of the manganese was followed quite closely. It is the striking correspondence between these varying manganese contents and the differences in rolling which is here presented as worthy of notice. The other ordinary elements were determined occasionally, but showed no. unusual variation: The steel, in question, was ordinary rail-steel of about the following compusition : C=35. P - .08. Mn - .98. Si = .08. 8 = .06. The samples for manganese determinations were taken at first from an average of two days&apos; work, and later on, when the steel

Jan 1, 1882

By Fred Van Covern

Before getting into a discussion of the subject of my paper, I want first to make it clear to everyone that I am speaking as an individual; and that any expressions of opinion that are contained herein, or may be expressed in any oral discussion that may follow its presentation, are entirely my own, and must not be construed to be the official opinion of the American Petroleum Institute. Demand fob Motor Fuel, 1936 During the year just closed the domestic demand for gasoline exceeded 481 million barrels. This compares with 434,810,000 bbl. consumed during 1935 and indicates an increase of 10.46 per cent. Export shipments amounted to 27,831,000 bbl. while in 1935 they totaled 30,613,000 bbl. Total demand, therefore, was 509,422,000 bbl., or 9.16 per cent above the 465,423,000 bbl. of 1935. Following are the figures for several years: Already we are supplying gasoline domestically and as foreign shipments at a rate almost 25 per cent greater than our low level of 1933. Before giving figures for 1937, I should like to spend a moment or two in discussion of gasoline inventories, from the point of view of minimum working stocks and other requirements and of probable actual levels. Inventories of Gasoline The year 1936 closed with about 62,900,000 bbl. of finished and unfinished gasoline in storage—about 6 million barrels more than was on hand

Jan 1, 1937

By G. H. Fancher

Improving economic conditions are reflected in the statistical picture of the petroleum and natural gas industry for 1933. Prices were better, demand was greater and the volume of production increased. The increase in the production of gas has been due mainly to the utilization of outlets to the new prolific gas fields of Potter and Tioga counties; of oil, to the growing demand for Pennsylvania grade lubricants. It should be emphasized that nowhere is volume of production more subject to control due to the extensive use of secondary methods of recovery and regional peculiarities than in Pennsylvania. A summary of developments in production for Pennsylvania in 1933 of necessity is brief. The data listed in Table 1 are all too few in number and not all that is desirable from the standpoint of accuracy. No state agency for the collection of data exists, no reports are compulsory. Nevertheless, because of the hearty cooperation of many individuals and public spirited corporations, it is believed that the data are as reliable as are obtainable at the present time. Furthermore, records of the past too often are lost, were never in existence or are fragmentary, to say the least. Illustrative of the condition is the fact that no thorough study of the oil and gas-producing regions has ever been made. The publications of the Pennsylvania Topographic and Geologic Survey upon the subject are noteworthy and valuable, especially the most recent one.&apos; The Survey has been handicapped in the work by lack of time, personnel and funds in addition to the difficulties mentioned previously. It is obvious, therefore, that Table 1 cannot be completed for Pennsylvania. The data simply are not in existence. Officially there are 328 oil and gas pools or fields known by name and 58 distinct sands or horizons, one or more of which are productive of oil and gas in the various pools, but reliable data for only three general regions could be assembled.

Jan 1, 1934

By Dudley Homer

MINAS DE MATAHAMBRE, S.A. is a Cuban mining corporation with mines located in the Matahambre district about 100 miles westerly from Havana in the Province of Pinar del Rio. The port of entry is the subport of Santa Lucia on the north coast of Cuba. The mines are located six miles inland at the town of Minas de Matahambre. Minas de Matahambre and Santa Lucia are connected by a 9-mile automobile road, and a 30,000-ft. Leschen aerial tramway. At the subport of Santa Lucia the company maintains docks, concentrate bins, tugs, lighters, and miscellaneous shipping equipment. The power plant of the company is also located at Santa Lucia. Connection between the power plant and the mine is effected by a 30,000-ft. transmission line. In the town of Minas de Matahambre are located the mines, concentrator, shops, and warehouses. The con-centrates are transported to Santa Lucia by the Leschen aerial tramway. The mines are equipped with three shafts, viz., Nos. 1, 2, and 3. (Fig. 1.) No. 1 Shaft is a three-compartment vertical tim-bered shaft and has reached a depth of 1825 ft. This is the present main hoisting shaft. No. 2 Shaft is a four-compartment vertical shaft lined with steel sets and native hardwood lagging. Certain portions where the ground is heavy have been lined with re-inforced concrete. Practically all production will be hoisted eventually through this shaft. No. 3 Shaft is a three-compartment vertical timbered shaft. It has reached a depth of 1090 ft. Its purpose is for prospecting, ventilation, and handling men and sup-plies through the north section of the mine.

Jan 1, 1933

By L. K. Jetter, C. J. McHargue

The use of axis charts for representing the texture of cold-rolled thorium sheet was compared with conventional pole figures. Four texture components were deduced from the axis charts and shown to be consistent with the pole figures. It was shown that consideration of the pole figures alone could lead to an apparent component which is the average of two actually present. It was also shown that the spread about the "ideal" textures and the amount of material associated with each could be readily obtained Fom the axis chart method. BECAUSE of the crystallographic nature of the deformation mechanisms in metals, plastic flow results in the alignment of certain crystallographic directions with the primary flow directions. In the study of the "preferred orientation" thus developed, one wishes to discern the distribution of the crystallographic directions with respect to some reference direction, usually a direction related to the fabrication procedure, such as the rolling direction. The pole-figure method, introduced by ever,&apos; involves the plotting of the distribution of the poles of some family of planes on a stereographic projection which places the reference direction(s) at the north pole and/or in the center. By noting the angles between the reference directions and concentrations of poles on several such pole figures, one can deduce the crystallographic directions which are aligned with the reference directions. If the preferred orientation is relatively simple and well-developed, one to three pole figures may be sufficient for obtaining the desired information; if there are several texture components, more pole figures may be needed. A significant improvement in the method of representing the textures in wires and rods resulted from the introduction of the "inverse pole figure" or axis-distribution chart by Harris.2 Such a chart gives directly the distribution of the reference axis relative to the standard stereographic projection. There has been widespread acceptance of this method for the representation of fiber textures, and methods have been proposed for converting observed diffraction intensities into axis densities.2-6 The suggestion by Mitchell and Rowland3 and Jetter, McHargue, and williams5 that sheet textures could be represented as distributions of rolling, normal, and transverse directions have been criticized on the basis that they offer no significant advantage over a combination of two ordinary pole figures and that it has not been proved that sheet textures can be treated as quasi fiber textures.6 If the purpose of a texture determination is to study some property which is related to the orientation of a particular crystallographic plane or direction, then conventional pole figures certainly are sufficient. For example, the distribution of the slip planes in face-centered cubic metals (the (111) pole figure) serves to indicate the variation in mechanical properties of sheet. On the other hand if the study is directed at an understanding of the factors influencing texture formation, it is desirable to know not only the preferred orientation but the kind and degree of spread from it and the relative amounts of material in each component, if there are more than one. Axis charts give this information as well as the orientation distributions. Consider the procedure for deducing a texture component from a pole figure for the (111) planes

Jan 1, 1961

By A. Beeby Thompson

ALTHOUGH the exclusion of foreigners and private owners from participation in the development of the Russian oil fields prevents first-hand information being obtained, both official and private news indicate a growing appreciation of the value of the country&apos;s oil resources. Notwithstanding the suppression of that initiative and energy which only ambition can adequately stimulate, the industry is progressing and exports of products are assuming an importance that cannot be disregarded as an economic factor in the world&apos;s oil business. The following notes and observations must be regarded mainly as the views of one who has closely followed the fortunes of Russian oil, when considering the changes that have taken place in geological knowledge and oil-field technique, which have so profoundly modified oil-fields methods. Russia is fortunate in having retained the services of a few scientists and technologists whose devotion to science has superseded their personal inclination, and to these few men must be attributed the slow, but nevertheless striking, progress that has been made. The productive oil fields of Russia are centered around the Caspian Sea which, with its connected river system, constitutes such an ideal means of internal distribution for products. From the group of oil fields of which the city of Baku forms a center, oil is pumped to Black town, a suburb of Baku, where all the refineries are situated. The next important group of oil fields is located in the Terek district near Grosny, where refineries are erected and the products are piped or carried by tank cars to Petrovsk for the internal Russian market, or sent to the Black Sea by rail. A third oil field is spread over the province of Uralsk, north of the Caspian Sea, the main port of outlet being Gourief, at the mouth of the River Ural. In Trans-Caspia there are two oil-field centers, one near. Krasnovodsk on Chelekan Island, and one in Central Asia at Ferghana. The product of the former fields is transported to Baku for treatment, while the output of the Turkestan field is refined and consumed locally, mainly by the railway.

Jan 3, 1925

By N. Brown, M. Herman

IT has been pointed out by Cottrell&apos; and Fisher that long-range order would produce superdis-locations, consisting of two partial dislocations separated by an out-of-phase region. The mutual repulsion of the partial dislocations is balanced by the surface tension of the out-of-phase domain boundary joining the dislocations (Fig. 1). The calculation of the equilibrium spacing of the dislocations has yet to be made. The argument uses the Bragg and Williams theory of long-range order." The metal under consideration is the A-B, body-centered type, such as ß brass. The slip system is taken to be [Ill], (110). Since nearest-neighbor interactions are considered, only the atoms position in the two (110) planes adjoining the slip plane have to be labeled. Corner sites are called a and a&apos; in the top and bottom (110) planes, respectively. Similarly ß and ß are the body-centered sites. Thus, a and ß and 0 and a sites are nearest neighbors. Assume that the bottom plane moves and the top plane is fixed during slip; the atoms in a and ß sites exchange sites but atoms in a and ß sites remain fixed. Fraction of A atoms in a sites, for example, is given by fa and fa. for the un-slipped and slipped condition, respectively. Similarly number of A atoms in the a sites is given by n, and n&apos;a for the unslipped and slipped condition, respectively. As the dislocation moves into the ordered region the change in number of A-A bonds is given by

Jan 1, 1957

By Edward H. Bzirdick

THE territory under particular consideration in this article comprises portions of La Plata and Montezuma Counties, situated in the southwestern corner of Colorado, and around the base of the La Plata Mountains. (See Fig. 1.) In southeastern Utah and northeastern Arizona there are several mountain systems whose origin and structure are practically identical with the La Platas so that ore occurrences found in the latter can be hopefully looked for in the former. With this assumption, there is an area around the laccolithic ranges which offers promise for a successful exploration for gold ores. Ore occurrences of the Silverton, Telluride, Rico, or Ouray Districts will not be discussed, although in these areas the Mesozoic sediments are more or less involved within the ore-bearing complex. These have been intensively studied and developed. The idea is to set forth what my mining experience has been within the largely unaltered . Mesozoic horizon which remains around the extreme bases of the La Plazas. This, until recent years, has been almost entirely neglected by prospectors and operators and, so far as similar territory in Utah and Arizona is concerned, so remains.

Jan 1, 1934

By Ralph W. M. Lai, D. W. Fuerstenau

In aqueous solution, an oxide surface is considered to consist of positively charged surface sites, MOH, neutral surface sites MOH, and negatively charged surface sites MO-. From the mass action law, equations for the distribution of these sites have been derived in terms of the hydrogen ion concentration in solution and the point of zero charge of the oxide. Experiments on the flotation of futile were carried out with sulfonates and amines which are collectors that physisorb, and with oleate, which is a collector that chemisorbs. Flotation response was found to correlate with the site distribution model. A similar correlation was found with published data on iron oxide potation.

Jan 1, 1977

By A. B. Parsons

LAST YEAR (1934) saw the completion of a ten-year program of reconstruction and modernization of the world&apos;s largest lead- smelting plant, that of the &apos; Broken Hill Associated Smelters Proprietary, at Port Pirie, South Australia, which has a capacity for smelting and refining 220,000 (short) tons of lead per year. It deals with the entire output of lead concentrates from the famous Broken Hill district in Australia, being owned .jointly by the three leading companies: North Broken Hill, Broken Hill South, and the Zinc Corporation. These companies, together with the Sulphide Corporation, are credited with a production of 198,000 tons of lead in 1934. When one says regarding any metallurgical plant that modernization is "completed" he should add "for the moment." Development in the art of metallurgy and in the equipment used never ceases; that which seems close to the last word today is likely to be obsolete in a few years even in a process so well standardized as smelting and refining lead. However, the reconstruction at Port Pirie has altered the procedure materially. More im-

Jan 1, 1935

By J. Brian Eby

The Gulf Coast of southern Louisiana during the year of 1940 was subjected to an extensive exploration and development campaign, as a result of which 16 oil fields and about 38 new producing sands were found. Although this record of discovery appears in keeping with the rate of 1939 actually in amount of new proven reserves, it may fall short of that of the previous year. Only five or six of the discoveries rated as first-class or important fields at the close of the year. The most prominent new fields opened during the year were Neale field in Beaure-gard Parish, the West Cote Blanche field in St. Mary Parish, the Stella field and the West Bay field in Plaquemines Parish, and the Lake Salvador field in St. Charles Parish. There were many important oil-sand discoveries in proven fields, such as in the Bayou Perot field, the Golden Meadows field, the Iowa field, West Lake Verrett field, and the Venice field. During the year, 1047 weUs were drilled in southern Louisiana, of which 768 were completed as oil-producing wells, 17 as gas wells and 262 as dry holes. The Neale field in northwest Beauregard Parish is considered one of the most important discoveries of the year. The f~eld centers around the north half of sec. 26, &apos;Y.3 S., R.I I W., just north of the town of Neale. It was discovered by the Atlantic Refining Co., using reflection seismograph to locate the structure. Production was found in the second well drilled in the Wilcox sand on the downthrown side of a fault. The structure is known as the "Tepetate" type, being similar to that of the well-known Tepetate field. There were 12 oil wells and 3 dry holes drilled during the year. The Wilcox sand in this field occurs between 8350 and 8400 ft. and averages 30 ft. in thickness. The West Cote Blanche Bay field, in West Cote Blanche Bay, St. Mary Parish, is a 1940 discovery by the Texas Company, credited to reflection seismograph exploration. The oil is from two sands occurring at 3110 to 3140 ft. and from 4950 to 5020 it. Four wells were drilled during the year, three oil wells and one dry hole. The deepest hole drilled reached 9491 ft. without encountering salt or dome material. In Plaquemines Parish, south of New Orleans, the California company has a new field known as the Stella field. The sand was found at a depth of 7485 ft., and 5 ft. of perforations made a well capable of producing 486 bbl. of oil in 24 hr. through a 9.is-in. choke. The oil is 42" gravity. The discovery well was drilled to a total depth of 10,258 ft. and other producing sands were indicated. A good field appears assured, although only one well was completed within the year. The Lake Salvador field, in the center of Lake Salvador, St. Charles Parish, gives promise of being one of the most important discoveries of the year. The discovery well was perforated at 9775 to 9800 ft. making 850 bbl. of 33.7° gravity oil daily through a 1/4-in. choke. Three wells were completed in 1940 but few details have as yet been made available.he Gulf Oil Corporation apparently has a good field in its wildcat discovery in West Bay, Plaquemines Parish. This well found

Jan 1, 1941