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By Eugene McAuliffe

AS anthracite is no longer used to a marked extent by the rail- ways of the United States (1,513,000 tons in 1933), that portion of the mining industry engaged in the production of bituminous coal is, and will continue to be, the one chiefly concerned with the future use of its product by the railways. In a period such as the present, when all enter- prise is unsettled, when fundamental principles of industrial management and control are being swept aside or else changed overnight, it is difficult to predict what will happen. The relation between the total production of bituminous coal and the volume consumed by the steam rail- ways of the United States, Classes I,

Jan 1, 1936

By Joseph A. Holmes

The public is already familiar with the general fact that the scope and the financial resources of the approaching St. Louis World's Fair are much larger than those of any of the preceding great expositions; and both the visitor and the exhibitor, when he comes to St. Louis in 1904, will find it to be a real World's Pair, with exhibits and visitors from every known country. Passing over the subject, as to the general Exposition, with this brief statement, I ask Sour attention to the consideration of a few important facts connected with the proposed mining exhibits at this Exposition. First of all, I may say that. reading- and writing-rooms and library facilities will be furnished in the Mines Building for miners and mining engineers, and it is expected that when they visit the Exposition they will make these rooms their headquarters, and give the Chief of the Department and his assistants an opportunity to extend to them such courtesies as may be possible. One of the exhibits in the Mines Department will consist of models and maps arranged to show the nature and extent of the mining operations in the United States at the time of the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803, the event which

Jan 1, 1903

By E. Motica

Ores containing uranium and vanadium minerals have been mined from the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation from many localities in the Colorado Plateau region since about 1900. The most productive deposits are in a relatively small area in Southwestern Colorado referred to as the Uravan mineral belt. The mineral belt is a narrow elongate area in which uranium-vanadium deposits in the Salt Wash have a closer spacing, larger size, and higher grade than those in adjoining areas. Pre- 1948 ore production from the mineral belt was 655,000 tons averaging 1.91 per cent V2O5 and 0.28 per cent U3O8. Production during the 1948 to 1964 period was 7,900,000 tons of ore averaging 1.46 per cent V2O5 and 0.27 per cent U3O8. The ore deposits occur principally in the uppermost sandstone unit of the Salt Wash. This unit consists of sandstone lenses formed by a system of aggrading braided streams flowing in an easterly direction generally normal to the mineral belt. These lenses, referred to as channels, are as much as one mile in width and average about 50 feet in thickness and can be traced for several miles along their courses. Areas favorable for one deposits are recognized principally by the following criteria: ( 1) a host sandstone thickness of over 30 feet, (2) the presence of carbonaceous material in the host sandstone, and ( 3) gray mudstones and clays associated with the ore-bearing sandstone. The ore minerals are believed to have been precipitated from laterally migrating solutions; there is no apparent genetic relationship between ore deposits and tectonic structural features. Exploratory and development drilling from the surface is conducted in three phases: first, wide-spaced drilling to find and outline favorable channels; second, moderate-spaced drilling in favorable ground to locate ore deposits; and third, close-spaced drilling to block-out ore. Long-hole drilling from underground stations is used to find and delineate extensions of ore bodies being mined. Due to intense production since 1948 from shallow deposits, best potential for new deposits exists in areas where the ore-bearing unit is 600 to 800 feet deep.

Jan 1, 1968

By Fred J. Miller

FRED J. MILLER was born in Ohio, in 1857. He had a common and high school education, supplemented by personal study and special instruction. After serving a 4-year apprenticeship and working in various capacities in machine shops, he became a contributor to mechanical journals and finally a member of the editorial staff of The American Machinist, where he remained for twenty years, the last ten years as editor-in-chief of the magazine, and vice-president of the publishing company. On retiring from journalism, he was for nine years general manager of a group of typewriter factories, and was then commissioned Major of Ordnance in the U. S. Army, being stationed during most of his service at Rock Island Arsenal, where he organized the Civilian Service Division of the Arsenal. He is now a member of the Technical Advisory Committee of the War Claims Board at Washington. Major Miller became a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1890, and has always taken an active interest in its affairs, having served on a number of important committees, and as a member of Council from 1904 to 1907, inclusive. He was elected President in December, 1919.

Jan 1, 1920

By Walter Kauenhowen

GeRmany's crude-oil production during 1936 totaled 3,112,494 bbl., an increase of 5.2 per cent over the 3,007,711 bbl. produced in 1935. The official monthly production figures published in 1936 report only the individual production figures of the three old established fields, whereas since 1936 official reports combine the production of all other fields into one figure. According to these published data, and using a conversion factor of 1 metric ton equaling 7 bbl., the oil production of Germany in 1936 was as follows:

Jan 1, 1937

By David R. Mitchell

IF you are the owner of a mine, or a mine executive, or just an ordinary miner, and have a son about to go to college, do you urge him to take up mining engineering or do you try to dissuade him from such a course? If you live in the East, or the Middle West and your interest has been in coal rather than metal mining, the chances are that your young hopeful will be urged to do almost anything else rather than follow in father's footsteps.

Jan 1, 1939

By D. S. Tannhauser, I. Bransky

Measurements of the electrical conductivity, the thermal electromotive force, and the deviation from stoichiometry by thermogravimetry were made on ferrous oxide (wüstite) single crystals as well as on poly-crystalline samples in the temperature range of -900" to 1330°C. In the region defined by T 2 1000°C and 1.05 5 O/Fe 5 1.10 the electrical conductivity was shown to be proportional to the sixth root of- the oxygen partial pressure and to be linearly dependent on the deviation from stoichiometry. The absolute Seebeck coefficient of single and polycrystalline wüstite was shown to be independent of temperature in the above region and a p to n transition of the Seebeck coefficient was observed at O/Fe = 1.09 in polycrystalline wüstite. Analysis of the results showed that the predominant defects in wüstite in the above region were doubly ionized cation vacancies. The analysis also ruled out the existence of complexes of the type postulated by Roth, except that below 1000°C there is some evidence of 'association of defects. Of the three oxides of iron (FeO, Fe3O4, Fe2O3) only FeO (wüstite) can exist within a wide range of the ratio O/Fe. This has been shown by several investigations of the phase diagram using for instance chemical analysis of quenched samples'-4 or thermogravimetric measurements. 5,8 Darken and Gurry's1 data for example in the temper- ature range 1100o to 1400°C show that the lowest O/Fe ratio obtainable for FeOl +. is about 1.045 and that the existence range extends to O/Fe = 1.20 at 1400oC. On the basis of detailed analysis of thermogravimetric measurements made by Vallet and Raccah6 the existence of three varieties of wüstite at elevated temperatures was suggested by these authors and by Kleman. It is well-established that wüstite has a NaCl structure with vacant cation sites.3, 8 From a neutron-diffraction study of wüstite samples quenched to room temperature Roth9 concluded that defects in wüstite are mostly complexes composed of two cation vacancies and one interstitial cation in a tetrahedral site. The atomic arrangement in the vicinity of such a defect is similar to that in magnetite, where each occupied tetrahedral site is surrounded by four vacant octahedral positions disposed at the corners of a tetrahedron, so arranged that each vacancy is shared by two tetrahedral cations. Thus there is an average of two vacancies per interstitial. Recent X-ray diffraction measurements made by Smuts10 on quenched wüstite samples confirmed the results of Roth's neutron-diffraction experiments. Roth's model of defects in FeO can be regarded as a solid solution of Fe3O4 in FeO; salmon1' used this defect model to calculate the activity of Fe3O1 in FeO at high temperature and claimed good agreement with the results obtained experimentally by Darken and Gurry.' Each missing cation in wüstite is accompanied by two trivalent cations, thus preserving charge neutrality. The "holes" which differentiate between the Fe 2+ and Fe3' states of the ions in octahedral positions can overcome the attractive field of the cation vacancies, and are then free to move through the crystal as charge carriers. A similar picture holds for COO, NiO, andMnO.l2, 13 Localization of the charge carriers in transition

Jan 1, 1968

William Clinton Brown, Brooklyn, N. Y.: The demand for an apparatus for cooling water for condensers, refrigeratingmachinery and air-compressors, as well as water-jacketed furnaces, has led manufacturers to put such an apparatus on the market, so that it is now possible to purchase a cooling-tower, properly designed and constructed, by simply stating the amount of water to be cooled and the temperatures of the hot and the cold water. The principle is similar to that described by Mr. Henrich, but wood is not used in the best apparatus. There are two great objections to wood: First, it cannot last long under the very trying conditions to which it is subjected; and second, it absorbs the organic matter with which water in constant use becomes impregnated, and the resulting odor is very disagreeable. A few days ago I saw a cooling-tower and condenser, built by the Henry R. Worthington Co., in operation at the Edison electric-lighting station in Brooklyn, N. Y., cooling the water for a 700 horse-power condenser. It consisted of a large stack of iron, about 15 feet in diameter by about 30 feet high. This stack was filled with tiling through which the water falls. A whirligig distributes the water evenly over the top, and a large fan, about 6 feet in diameter, driven by a 10 horse-power electric motor, blows air into the bottom, thus giving a positive circulation. The water, in running down the sides of the tiling, is met by the blast of air, and enough is evaporated to cool the rest. The vacuum-gauge on the condenser showed 26 inches; so the condenser was undoubtedly getting sufficient cool water.

Jan 1, 1896

The annual meeting of the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America was held on Tuesday, Jan. 8, 1918, at the Engineers' Club, New York, to elect officers and councillors for the ensuing year, to receive the reports of its retiring officers, and for the transaction of any business which might properly be considered. As usual, the meeting was divided into two sessions; the first, more properly the business session, was called to order at 2:30 p.m., with an attendance of 17 members; the second session took place at 8:30 p. m., immediately following an informal dinner, at which 40 guests and members participated. The latter was particularly interesting because it gave the meeting an opportunity to absorb first-hand information regarding the present crisis in Russia. Messrs. F. W. Draper and J. P. Hutchins, the latter a member and long resident in Russia, were the speakers of the evening.

Jan 3, 1918

By AIME AIME

FOR many years it has been the invariable custom of the Institute, in addition to its annual meeting in February, to hold a technical meeting in the fall in some mining or metallurgical center in the West. As the activities of the Institute have increased, and especially since the absorption 'of the American Institute of Metals, there have for a number of years been two fall meetings. Never before in the history of the Institute have there been three meetings in addition to the annual meeting in February; in 1920, however, three important fall meetings are to be held. The general Institute trip will be made this fall to the Lake Superior iron and copper country. Members will leave Buffalo on August 20 by steamer, visit the copper mines in and about Houghton, the iron mines of the Marquette and Iron Ranges of Michigan and the iron mines of the Mesabi Range in Minnesota, and' return to Buffalo by steamer on September 3. Technical sessions will be held at Houghton, Minneapolis and Duluth. For a long period it was customary for the Institute to visit the Lake Superior country about every seven years. This trip, however, will be the first visit since 1904. The unprecedented development in both copper and iron mining in this section during this period will make this trip of unusual importance. In addition, a notable series of papers will be presented.

Jan 1, 1920

By R. B. Snow

THIS paper describes a technique of polishing and etching specimens of open-hearth furnace slags or hearth aggregates for identification of the crystalline constituents-lime (CaO), tricalcium silicate (3CaO•SiO2), dicalcium silicate (2CaO-SiO2), monticellite (CaO•MgO-SiO2), or forsterite (2MgO•SiO2), with especial emphasis on the mineral merwinite (3CaO-MgO.2SiO2). With proper standardization, this identification does not require the use of the petrographic microscope. The composition of basic open-hearth slags and furnace bottoms falls, almost without exception, within systems containing CaO, MgO, "FeO," MnO and SiO2, in which the number of basic molecules so greatly exceeds the orthosilicate ratio (two molecules of base to one of silica) that free basic oxides, and combinations between them such as aluminates or ferrites, are present in cooled specimens. Orthosilicates of (CaO + MgO) are the most common in such specimens, since in nearly all cases, except premelt slags, the molecular ratio of (CaO + MgO) to SiO2 is more than 2 to r. When sufficient lime is available it combines with the silica to form dicalcium silicate (2CaO•SiO2), which contains little, if any, MgO, FeO or MnO in solid solution whereas the latter oxides combine to form the oxide solid solution known as periclase. If the lime present is insufficient to form dicalcium silicate (2CaO•SiO2) it combines with MgO to form either merwinite (3CaO•MgO.2SiO2) or monticellite (CaO-MgO•SiO2); these minerals take little if any FeO or MnO into solid solution and the remaining MgO, FeO and MnO combine as periclase. This generalization seems to be valid for basic slags and furnace bottoms, since minerals such as CaO-MnO•SiO2 and CaO-FeO-SiO2 are found only in slags in which the lime-silica ratio is less than 2 and are not observed in specimens from furnace bottoms. The identification of crystalline constituents in such materials, especially of fine crystals in the groundmass, is difficult under the petrographic microscope. They are often masked by their neighbors because of their small size in relation to the thickness of the thin section and because of the presence of opaque or colored constituents. The indices of retraction and the optical sign of the mineral are sometimes difficult to determine because of the small size or because of twinning or of inclusions within the crystal. Moreover, the positive identification of merwinite (3CaO•MgO.2SiO2) from its optical properties is usually difficult in the presence of dicalcium silicate (2CaO•SiO2). CaO, MgO, 3CaO•SiO2 and 2CaO•SiO2 in open-hearth slags have been identified for a number of years in the U.S. Steel Corporation Laboratory by the usual

Jan 1, 1947

By Gerhard Derge

THE introductory paper1 of this series described the potential behavior of tin in sodium carbonate and bicarbonate solutions whose pH ranged from 8.4 to 11.2 and demonstrated that significant and reproducible results could be obtained by proper attention to experimental technique. In examining the corrosion of tin under such conditions, it is desirable to know the effects of anions, aside from carbonate, that are likely to be present in commercial materials packaged in tin. Therefore, in this paper the potential behavior of tin in carbonate solutions to which sodium fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, sulphate, nitrate, monobasic phos-phate, dichromate, perborate and acetate have been added will be described. For most of the additions, solutions containing 0.001 and 0.01 .moles of the added material were studied. The experimental procedure was exactly the same as that described in the first paper; the pH of the electrolyte was controlled by adjusting the ratio of carbonate to bicar-bonate as follows: pH 0.1 M NaHCO3 8.4 2 parts 0.1 M NaHCO3, 1 part 0.1 M Na2CO3 9.5 1 part 0.1 M NaHCO3, 2 parts 0.1 M Na2CO3 10.0 0.1 M Na2CO3 11.2 The reagents used were all of C.P. grade. The anions studied may be divided into three groups: (1) anions that had little or no effect upon the potential curves-sulphate, nitrate, and acetate; (2) those that helped to prevent corrosion at low pH only-fluoride, chloride, bromide, and iodide; (3) those that helped to prevent corrosion at high pH also-phosphate, perborate, and chromate.

Jan 1, 1939

By Nathan C. Rockwood

BASIC mineral commodities may be divided into two general classifications in their market or price characteristics. In one class are commodities sold on a world-wide basis, as gold, silver, nickel, asbestos and petroleum, and in the second are those produced and sold locally. Of course, no precise line of demarcation exists between the two; coal, for instance, belongs more or less in both. If there are enough producers of any commodity to prevent control of production by any one person or group, a free market then exists and the price in a buyer's market is determined by the most favored producer-meaning the producer, with the lowest production cost or the lowest cost of transportation, or both, to the particular market, or place of use. With minerals in the first classification, their high intrinsic value far outweighs the transportation cost and a uniform market price is accepted as an essential element in the economy of distribution. But with common minerals of small. intrinsic value and relatively high transportation costs, economists are reluctant to admit that a uniform price may also be an essential element in distribution.

Jan 1, 1940

By Richard Moldenke

The paper describes the making of pig iron from the Mayari iron ores of Cuba. The outstanding feature f this pig iron is a considerable content f nickel and chromium. As a marked improvement in the quality of castings has been noted when this iron is used in the foundry mixtures, a series f melting tests f mixtures of great variety of composition was conducted with the idea f getting comparative strengths from which the effect of nickel¬chromium could be seen. These tests, on account of their number, and degree of accuracy desired, were made by the crucible melting method. The paper gives the tables of results, a series f curves showing the inter-relation of the elements involved, and a summary of the conclusions derived. THE presence of nickel-chromium in pig iron made from Cuban ores is so well known that the word "Mayan" is unconsciously associated with it. Since 1904, when exploration of the Mayari deposits of iron ore in northeastern Cuba was undertaken, there has been increasing interest in these ores. The TRANSACTIONS contain numerous references to them. This iron ore, which is shipped to the. United States in the nodulized state, has been thoroughly tested and found very valuable; the deposit covers over 25,000 acres and there is in sight over 500,000,000 tons of ore that, by systematic mining, runs practically constant in composition. With nickel and chromium present, also titanium in sufficient quantities to attract attention, as well as extremely low phosphorus and sulfur contents, the iron founder is naturally interested in the utilization of Mayari ore for pig iron for the better grades of finished iron products. The present point of consumption of Mayari ore is at Sparrow's Point, where Mayari pig iron of any desired composition is made. The com-

Jan 9, 1922

By L. V. Wade

Abstract-US Bureau of Mines efforts under longwall research programs to develop the capability to predict support requirements for longwall/shortwall support systems are discussed. Ground control studies are being conducted in conjunction with several longwall/shortwall demonstration projects. Geologic, support performance, and strata behavior are being documented on these projects. A hypothesis is presented for the prediction of support requirements.

Jan 11, 1978

By J. M. Avasthi

The DOE-funded (Contract No. DE-ACO3-77ET13108) Gulf Research & Development Co. (GR&DC) field tests of underground coal gasification in steeply dipping beds (UCG/SDB) were conducted in the North Knobs area, located 12.8 km (8 miles) west of Rawlins, WY. The site has a gently rolling, sparsely vegetated, semidesert terrain on the transition zone between a broad, flat basin (Great Divide Basin) to the west and the subdued mountains of the Rawlins uplift to the east. A comprehensive geotechnical program (Ahner et al., 1980) was essential to successfully complete the test program. Emphasis of the program was the subsurface characterization of the site and consisted of mapping, drilling and logging, core analyses, and hydrologic tests. The samples of lithologic units over- and underlying the G coal seam were tested in the laboratory for their modulus and strength. This program provided the required data necessary for designing surface facilities, input for permits, and ensuring correct placement of the process modules. The two UCG tests at the Rawlins site were conducted in the nominally 6.7 m (22 ft) thick G coal seam (rank-subbituminous B), dipping at 63°.

Jan 1, 1984

By I. E. Rosenzweig

The problem considered in this paper is as follows: An arbitrary horizontally stratified area is given. The electrical properties of this area are characterized by a function p(z) (Fig. I), which shows the relationship between resistivity p of the soil and the depth z. For such general case the apparent resistivity p* will be computed, by earth-resistivity measurements carried out by any given configuration of electrodes. General solutions of this problem appear to be very important for interpretation of field results of resistivity measurements, concerning structural investigations. Such solutions have been given by many authors for the special case of a finite number of homogeneous layers (Fig. 2)lV4 as well as for the more general case of continuously ranging resistivities.5-8

Jan 1, 1940

By I. E. Rosenzweig

The problem considered in this paper is as follows: An arbitrary horizontally stratified area is given. The electrical properties of this area are characterized by a function p(z) (Fig. I), which shows the relationship between resistivity p of the soil and the depth z. For such general case the apparent resistivity p* will be computed, by earth-resistivity measurements carried out by any given configuration of electrodes. General solutions of this problem appear to be very important for interpretation of field results of resistivity measurements, concerning structural investigations. Such solutions have been given by many authors for the special case of a finite number of homogeneous layers (Fig. 2)lV4 as well as for the more general case of continuously ranging resistivities.5-8

Jan 1, 1940

By Frank G. Breyer

THE .following developments in the zinc field during 1935 are listed in the order of their importance. Each will he amplified in later paragraphs. In the field o f Metallic Zinc: (1) Construction of further continuous vertical retort smelting capacity in the United States and Germany. (2) Expansion of fractional distillation capacity in the United States. (3) Great expansion in the zinc-base die-casting industry in the United States and abroad. (4) Wide acceptance of heavy galvanizing by the steel industry. (5) Construction of the first commercial wire electroplating plant for putting on heavy coats of pure zinc. (6) Firm establishment and appreciable expansion of the practice of using zinc dust as a reducing agent in the organic chemical industry.

Jan 1, 1936

By Herman Dykstra, Irving Fatt

Relative wetting phase permeabilities calculated from capillary pressure-saturation data are compared with measured relative permeability data. The equation relating relative permeability to capillary pressure-saturation data is derived by assuming that a porous medium is analogous to a bundle of capillary tubes. The equation includes a term to correct for the difference between fluid path length and length of core. Relative oil permeability data in the water-oil-gas system are presented, and it is shown that if the water is considered part of he rock matrix, the relative oil permeability curve is typical of a wetting phase relative permeability curve. Apparatus for measuring two and three-phase relative permeabilities are described. INTRODUCTION The difficulty in measuring relative permeability of cores has made it desirable to have a correlation between relative permeability and some more easily measured property of porous media. Such an easily measured property is the capillary preisure-saturation relation. In the past there has been a tendency to separate the capillary pressure concept from the very complex pore geometry and to consider that the capillary pressure-saturation curve give? only some characteristic distribution of interfacial curvature between two fluids.' Recently, however, it has been realized that if capillary pressure data are to yield information concerning pore size distribution2 and fluid flow in porous media. the pore must be assumed to have a simple shape such as a cylinder or a sphere. Childs and George' showed that relative water permeability could be calculated from the capillary pressure-water saturation curve by assuming that the pores are cylinders in which the fluid flowing obeys Poiseuille's Law, and that the capillary preisure curve indicated the size and number of pores. Purcell5 derived an equation relating the permeability of a porous medium to the capillary pressure curve by assuming the porous medium to he analogous to a bundle of capillary tubes. Gates and Lietz6 calculated relative permeability by an equa-tion derived from Purcell's equation. In this paper an equation is derived giving the relative water permeability as a function of water saturation by as-sulning that the core sample can be represented by a bundle of capillary tubes in which the fluid path length is not the same as the bulk length, and in which the fluid path length varies with saturation. THEORY For a bundle of N capillary tubes the flow through dN tubes will be dQ = qav dN ..........(1) where Q is the total flow rate through all the tubes and q., is the aberage flow rate through the tubes in the interval dN. If the interval dN is made small the average flow rate through a tube in the interval dN is given by Poiseuille's Law, 8 nl where ?P is the pressure drop across the tube of length 1 and radius r, and µ is the viscosity of the fluid. Substituting for qav in Equation (1), dQ =pr4 ? P/8µl dN.........(3) Darcy's Law for linear flow of an incompressible fluid in a porous medium is Q = KA?P/µL...........(4) where K is the permeability and ?P is the pressure drop across a bundle of tubes which has replaced the porous medium of length L and cross-sectional area A. Differentiating Darcy's Law with A, ?P, µ, and L constant, dQ = A?P/µL dK.........(5) Equating (3) and (5) gives dK------------dN.........(6) 8Al If the pores are assumed to be cylinders dV =pr2ldN..........(7) where V is the volume of flowing fluid in the pores. Substituting for dN in Equation (6) gives dK = —dV..........(8) 8AI' By definition the saturation, S, of the core is v v S =V/Vp..........(9) Vv -PAL

Jan 1, 1951