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By A. W. Ambrose

"Those having an intimate knowledge of the relation between production and consumption of crude oil in the United States have realized for some time that production will not be able to keep pace with consumption. The American public has had this called forcibly to its attention by the increased prices of gasoline and crude oil, and by the recent shortage of gasoline on the Pacific Coast. In substance, each year we are consuming millions of barrels of oil more than we produce, and this deficit must be made to by importations. A careful analysis of the situation makes it evident that we need every barrel of oil that can be produced.Need for the Petroleum Production Engineer.Under present production practices perhaps 80% of the oil still remains in the sand. (See Lewis, J.O., Methods for increasing the recovery from oil sands, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 148 p. 8.) Many wells are making water, and even whole pools are being flooded. The burning of fuels under field boilers is not generally efficient, and often gas is not made to do its full duty in bringing the oil to the well.In the past the producer has had to combat these and other problems single-handed. He has been too busy to give them special attention, and he has had little competent engineering advice. Oil, gas, and water occur underground according to certain natural laws. Undoubtedly an engineer, who is familiar with production practices and understands the fundamentals of the accumulation of oil and gas, can be of service to the producer by specializing on certain problems with a view of getting mare oil from the sand. In every other enterprise of similar magnitude the engineer is regarded as a necessary unit to its operation, and he should be so in the production of oil. His field of work should extend to every phase of production in which science and engineering and geology"

Sep 1, 1920

By R. D. Leitch

Beside many other damaging effects of acid mine drainage, corrosion of pipe lines and pumps frequently adds much to mine operating costs. Not only is it often necessary to install special and relatively costly acid-resistant materials, but even these may require frequent replacements. It is not unusual for ordinary steel pipe to last only a few days in some highly acid waters, while other common materials, though more resistant, frequently last only a few weeks. In the spring of 1935, local PWA authorities offered to assign a number of persons to various problems under the direction of regular employees of the Bureau of Mines. It was believed that at least some simple tests on as many different kinds of acid-resistant pipes as could readily be obtained might produce interesting and valuable information for the mining industry. This paper describes the tests and some results that have since been noted.

Jan 1, 1938

By D. Harrington

An explosive may be defined as a substance (usually a mixture) that has the property of yielding, readily to combustion or oxidation upon application of flame or shock, the combustion or oxidation process being rapid and accompanied by formation of such relatively large quantities of gases that much violence and pressure are produced; these, in turn, react against their surroundings and cause what is termed an explosion. By their very nature their action is destructive and disruptive of adjunct materials; hence, all explosives axe potentially hazardous and every type of explosive, irrespective of its relative safety, should be handled, .stored, and used with utmost care at all times and under all conditions. It should always be remembered that any explosive can be rude safe only in certain of its features and under certain conditions and circumstance. If these facts (and they certainly are facts) are always kept in mind, most of the modern types of explosives can be utilized advantageously in our industrial life and with a considerable degree of safety. That commercial explosives can be handled. safely is borne out in part by the fact that in the past 15 years at least 3,000,000,000 pounds of the commercial explosive dynamite have been transported by railroads in the United State, without injury to any person, insofar as available records indicate.

Jan 1, 1939

By E. J. Gleim

To make a thorough survey of a coal mine in order to eliminate hazards, the competent safety engineer must be familiar with mere than one branch of engineering. It is essential that he know the properties of mine gases and the methods of detecting them, as well as hew to prevent dangerous as accumulations. It is also essential that he understand the action of overlying strata when the coal is removed, and the proper methods of protection by timbering or other suitable means of support. He must know the value of protective clothing in reducing injuries and mast be informed as to the correct handling and use of explosives to avoid premature blasts, misfires, and ether failures in blasting practice. He must understand hew to operate locomotives and cutting, loading, and various other types of machines to be able to recommend effective safeguards for protecting the men who use them in addition to being informed as 'to these and many ether activities connected with the mining of coal, he must net overlook electrical engineering if he wishes to combat the fire, shook, and ignition hazards attendant upon the use of electrical machinery and circuits in and around the mine intelligently. There are many points relating to safely in the selection, maintenance, and use of electrical circuits and equipment that are perfectly obvious to the electrical engineer but perhaps are not se evident to those not trained in this particular branch of engineering. Engineers of the U.S. Bureau of Mines who have made a special laboratory study of electricity as related to safety in minus haw e also made inspections of electrical installations at a large number of bituminous mines. These inspections have revealed practices and conditions that not only do not contribute to safety but that add nothing to efficiency and economy in the operation of the mine.

Jan 1, 1936

Preventive maintenance practices are listed in the manufacturers' instruction books. In general, equipment that requires frequent and extensive preventive maintenance is generally the most costly. The manpower spent on these frequent trips to remote areas is such that it is usually better to invest in a more costly system which requires little preventive maintenance. The best preventive maintenance for the system is a good installation. 7.2 Preventive Maintenance and Inspections With any system, periodic inspection is required because of the corrosive atmosphere and adverse conditions that exist in underground mines. These inspections can spot potential trouble in the system. Repair or replacement at that time averts the possibility of losing effectiveness of all or part of the system. 7.2.1 Cables Approximately once per month all cables in the communications system should be inspected for kinking, chafing, cracking, wear, stretching, or other signs of physical abuse. Particular attention should be paid to cable glands at the entry or exit points to the various units in the system, where the cable goes around sharp corners, in the vicinity of holding cleats which may be clamping the cable too tightly causing potential damage, and across the areas where the cable is exposed to physical damage from outside sources, such as equipment or falling objects. If a cable is damaged, it should be replaced as soon as possible. It is mandatory that the ground leads and connections to carrier current phones be thoroughly inspected and maintained in good condition, since considerable hazard may exist to the operator or equipment if a ground connection is broken. 7.2.2 Pager Phones The most readily available test set to determine if a pager telephone is operating correctly is the pager phone itself. The following physical check of the system can be performed at any phone station. 7.2.2a Listen Circuit Remove the handset from its cradle and listen to determine if the circuit is functional, as indicated by the presence of noise or conversation on the line. If no noise or voice signals are present at the handset receiver, take the following corrective action: 1. Operate the handset press-to-talk switch several times. Any corrosion on the contacts of this switch may cause a receiver to be temporarily inoperative. Repeated operation may clear the condition. 2. Open the cabinet and see if the battery cables are properly connected and are making firm contact. Check the handset cable and its connections in the cabinet of the pager phone, and see if there is any evidence of a break in the cable, corroded contacts, or poor connections. 3. Remove the handset receiver earpiece by unscrewing it counterclockwise (to the left), and remove the receiver from the socket. Examine the handset cavity; in some units, a patch of cotton batting or floss is used as a barrier to reduce acoustic feedback in the handset. If the cotton patch has absorbed moisture, remove it and replace with a crumpled ball of soft rubber, stuffed just far enough into the handset so it will not touch the receiver or switch terminals. 7.2.2b Page Circuit and Talk Circuit Push the page switch, squeeze the handset press-to-talk switch, and call any other phone. Release the page switch

Jan 1, 1984

By Sumner M. Anderson

ATHOUGH scattered signs of increased activity in the mining industry accompanied an incipient improvement in the overall economic situation during the latter months of 1963, production levels for the year as a whole responded to the general 1962-63 business recession with a 4.2 percent decline. The petroleum industry, active since 1907, did not become a dynamic force in the economy until exploration and drilling contracts were concluded with private companies in 1958 and 1959; on November 15, 1963, having virtually achieved self-sufficiency in petroleum in the preceding year, those contracts were unilaterally annulled. In the field of metallics, the only approach to internal sufficiency-aside from the iron and steel industry that has depended heavily on the importing of basic raw materials-has been in mining, smelting, and refining lead and zinc although iron ore, silver, beryllium, tantalite, and tungsten have been mine production items of economic significance. Reserves of lead, zinc, silver, bismuth, vanadium, and low-grade and metallurgically difficult iron ore-as well as those of beryllium, tantalite, and tungsten which are produced primarily for export-appear to be fairly abundant. The exploration of deposits of copper, cobalt, tin, lithium, gold, manganese and uranium has been undertaken on a relatively small scale, and little precise information is available on the extent of reserves. Argentina is dependent on foreign sources for part of its required iron and steel and, except for lead and zinc, most of its nonferrous metals. Nonmetallies and solid fuels present an exceptionally varied array of production items among which cement had the second largest 1963 output in South America. Borates, bentonite, common clay, diatomite, fluorite, granite, lime, limestone, obsidian, onyx, rhodochrosite, salt, and spodumene ordinarily are produced for export either exclusively or in excess of domestic consumption requirements. Barite, cement, chalk, gypsum, marble, and mica are both exported and imported. Argentina depends entirely or partly on imports for coal and coke, certain special types of clay, mineral abrasives, graphite, magnesite, mineral fertilizers, sulfur, talc, and minerals for construction, the last group being chiefly attributable to convenience of river transport from Uruguay.

Jan 1, 1964

By F. J. Gallagher

"INTRODUCTION The purpose of this circular is to present information on the construction and use of reinforced rubber-jatketed tubing and insulatiag air-line couplings in coal mines Where Airdox is used for breaking coal in order to eliminate: insofar as possible, arcing at the face between Airdox tubing and the track or other face equipment.ACKNOWLEDGMENTThe information given by the W. M. Hales Co., Chicago, Ill and the Peabody Coal Co., Taylorville, Ill., regarding the construction and use of rubber-jacketed tubing and insulating couplings in gratefully acknowledged. GENERAL INFORMATIONSince its introduction into coal mines, the use of Airdox has grown in popularity, especially in the Indiana and Illinois coal fields. Its use permits breaking dawn coal on shift, whereas the use of explosives for blasting coal on shift is prohibited by law in those States. Many of the hazards connected with the use of explosives are eliminated. The accident experience in the use of Airdox has been excellent with respect to the number of fatalities or serious injuries per million tons mined.The Federal Mine Safety Code specifies that Airdox lines should be grounded at the compressor and at other points of low resistance along the lines but should not be connected to tracks, pipe lines, or other possible power conductors. The majority of operators in the Indiana and Illinois coal mines, in which Airdox is used, approve the precautions embodied in the code regulationsIf Airdox lines are grounded in accordance with the Code, the following hazards persist:"

Sep 1, 1949

By Timothy M. Barton

The U.S. Bureau of Mines is conducting research to assess the effectiveness of different chain pillar designs in maintaining gate entry stability. A particular concern is ground control for deep-cover 1ongwalls located at depths in excess of 1,000 ft. The study described in this report was performed in two experimental sections in one longwall headgate section which contained three different pillar designs. Two of the designs used conventional abutment pillars, while the third was a total-yielding pillar system. Both of the test areas were located under 1,800 ft of cover. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of these three pillar designs for gate road stability. As the longwall mined passed the test areas, Bureau engineers monitored entry convergence, roof sag, and changes in roof quality. The study indicated that the all-yield system performed nearly as well as the better of the two abutment pillar systems; but all of the three designs would have failed to provide acceptable stability for second panel mining without considerable artificial support.

Jan 1, 1989

By O. Terichow

A pendulum sclerometer designed by the Bureau of Mines is described. Its method of operation is given, along with the results of tests made on representative mineral samples of Mohs' hardness scale to determine the applicability of the device for research on rock testing. The sclerometer hardness values obtained from the tests indicated that reproducibility and accuracy were good. A quantitative comparison of the pendulum hardness values with microhardness and surface energy values published by other investigators showed good agreement on minerals with Mohs' hardness numbers of 2 to 9.

Jan 1, 1967

By Ann G. Kim

Hydrocarbon gases, primarily methane but also the C2 through C5 paraffins, the C2 and C3 olefins and possibly the C4 and C5 olefins, are byproducts of coal formation. Although it is generally believed that coal formation occurred at temperatures below 200° C, most experimental work on gas formation from coal has been performed at temperatures between 200° and 1,000°C. The objective of this Bureau of Mines experiment was to determine if observable changes in the gases from coal could be produced at temperatures below 200° C in relatively short periods of time. The experiment involved heating coal samples from six coalbeds at constant temperatures and analyzing evolved gases. The composition of the gases at three temperatures was compared. At 35° C, over 99 pct of the gas is methane; at 125° and 150°, methane constitutes approximately half of the hydrocarbon gas. Isobutane and pentane are the predominant higher hydrocarbons at temperatures between 100° and 150° C.

Jan 1, 1974

By D. J. Parker

This report is based on data collected in and about the Liberty mine of the Liberty Fuel Co. by D. J. Parker and W. W. Kessler on December 13 and 14, 1933. An important phase of an examination to determine the general condition of a mine with respect to safety is the collection of dust samples from rock- dusted areas. Definite conclusions, based on intelligent interpretation of the analyses of such samples, can be reached only when the general condition of the mine is known. A similar examination and report were made on this property in January 1930 by D. J. Parker and R. I. C. Manning. Since that time much has been done by the management to improve safety conditions in this mine. The changes made will be noted in the course of this report. The mine is in Spring Canyon at Latuda, Carbon County, Utah, and is served by a branch line of the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad about 7 miles long and connecting to the main line near Helper, Utah. The writer desires to express his sincere appreciation for the many courtesies and helpful cooperation extended by Superintendent George Schultz and Mine Foreman F. W. Koelling.

Nov 1, 1934

By R. V. Ramani, C. B. Manula, A. Owili-Eger

Network analysis of mine ventilation systems is not new, having been traced back to 1854. A Committee Report (1970) has also reported the extensive work done in this respect in the United Kingdom, Japan, U.S.S.R., South Africa, United States, and other countries. Wang, et al (1970) developed a computer program which is an improvement over the earlier one developed by Wang et al (1967). The program has been recently modified and extended to include methane emission features by Owili-Eger (1973). This computer program incorporates all the novel features of the earlier programs. These include the capabilities of mesh selection, free splitting, internal or external fans, natural ventilation pressure and fixed quantity branches. The program is written in Fortran IV and, in effect, is an experimental mine in which many ideas can be tried out. The computer produces, besides the input data and certain computational data, the quantities and head losses in the branches, the head losses to be adjusted in the fixed quantity branches and the fan operating point. The last named program, hereafter to be referred to as the PSU/MVS, is presented in Appendix I. The application of this program is demonstrated in this manual through a series of selected examples. Application of the methane generator program is not included here as a detailed report on the subject is available elsewhere (Ramani et al, 1975).

Jan 1, 1975

By L. C. Headley

A series of exploratory tests was conducted to determine the effects of steady electric fields on fluid flow and streaming potential in narrow passages and porous media, the effects of steady electric fields on fluid interfaces, and the influence of internal voltages on fluid flow in a porous porcelain sample. Voltages greater than about 5 kilovolts were found to influence liquid droplets emanating from a capillary tube. Solutions of polyethylene oxide and polyacrylamide in water exhibited widely different behavior than that of other liquids tested. Liquid-liquid displacement tests in porous samples to determine the influence of high voltage applied to the displacing liquid on flow rates and recovery gave no significant differences. No consistently measurable effects were noted, either on flow rate or streaming potential, when an electric field was applied transverse to the direction of flow in porous media and in narrow rectangular or cylindrical channels. Experimental values of formation factor and streaming potential for a porous porcelain sample agreed qualitatively with those calculated from electrokinetic theory for ultrafine capillaries. However, the agreement for the electroviscous effect was not good.

Jan 1, 1970

By Elton L. Litchfield

The Bureau of Mines determined minimum energies for direct initiation of expanding gaseous detonation waves in acetylene-oxygen mixtures. Composition limit ranges for the initiation of detonation with fixed energies have been compared to data in the literature. Assuming that the stored electrical energy is completely converted to thermal energy, the agreement between the energy of primary explosive initiators and the energy of electrical discharge initiators was good. Minimum energies for initiation of detonation in the most sensitive composition (40 percent C20 plus 60 percent 0 2) were: 0.64 joule at an initial pressure of 1/4 atmosphere, 5.0X10-2 joule at 1/2 atmos¬phere, and 3.7X10-3 joule at I atmosphere. Fuel concentrations in mixtures initiated to detonation by 4.9X102 joules ranged from 10 to 65 percent C2H2 at 1/4 atmosphere, 10 to 67 percent C2H2 at 1/2 atmosphere, and 9 to 68 percent C2H2 at 1 atmosphere.

Jan 1, 1967

By Fred C. Turin, Lisa J. Steiner, Kim M. Cornelius

Like many experienced workers, remote control continuous miner operators perform their everyday jobs making choices and decisions that they may not consciously think about. While performing tasks, they are continuously processing feedback and cues which guide them for the next move. Initial training teaches the operators the tasks necessary to operate the equipment and perform the job. However, with experience they are better able to deal with hazardous conditions and non routine situations. To better understand what potential cues and feedback help to guide the operators, a questionnaire was developed to learn what factors affect decisions. Operator responses address issues related to specific tasks, equipment operation, visibility, lighting, and communication issues. The information collected is useful to understand what cues experienced operators use to make task performance decisions. Results will be used to develop interventions and training for safe and effective operator performance.

By E. L. Litchfield

Spark ignition of combustible-gas mixtures is a relatively old subject of investigation and has been treated both experimentally and analytically by many people. Elements of static and current electricity are almost always present in mining and industrial operations, and the spark can be an extremely efficient source of ignition. Thus the practical interest of such problems as the "intrinsic safety" of electrical apparatus is obvious. Ignition and quenching phenomena are the primary laboratory representatives of combustion phenomena that are dynamically nonsteady, and such nonsteady phenomena playa considerable part both in industrial processes and in safety matters, although they are of less immediate practical interest. Considerable effort has been expended by the Federal Bureau of Mines in investigations of spark ignition.5 6 7 8/ Primarily, this work has established the significance of several of the parameters involved. Although the

Jan 1, 1959

By Deborah A. Kramer

As part of the Nation's growing concern with the competitiveness of U.S. firms in the world economy, especially with respect to advanced materials, the Bureau of Mines assessed the actual and potential recovery and manufacturing capabilities for gallium and gallium arsenide (Gacis). GaAs has advanced from a laboratory curiosity to a material with important "high-tech applications within only the last few years, and although protected North American gallium supplies are currently considered adequate, consumption could grow to the point that this assessment would need reevaluation.

Jan 1, 1988

By K. E. Stanfield

Asphalts from. Wyoming "black oils" are being studied at the Petroleum Experiment Station of the Bureau of Mines at Laramie, Wyo., in cooperation with the University of Wyoming. These black oils are characterized by their high-asphalt, high-sulphur, and low-gasoline content and are difficult to refine by present methods into high-octane motor fuels, burning oils, and lubricants. Accordingly, their principal use, at present, is for the manufacture of road oil and asphalt. The present production of black oil could be increased to meet a greater demand. During 1937 the daily production of these crude oils in Wyoming was slightly over 13,000 barrels, while the estimated potential production from existing wells was 56,000 barrels.

Jan 1, 1939

By Raymond M. Stateham

Climatic conditions are compared with roof fall occurrence from April 1, 1972, to December 31, 1975, by the Bureau of Mines. These comparisons indicate that humidity has a strong influence on roof fall occurrence rates. Cubic regression techniques are used to develop best fit curves. Statistical analysis of these curves indicate that both are sinusoidal and exhibit positive correlation with each other. The sine waves have a period of 1 year with maximum and minimum inflection points in August and February.

Jan 1, 1978

By Edward B. Kendall

[This paper is one of a series being prepared far and published by the United States Bureau of Minus describing the methods of mining used and operating costs obtained in producing land and gravel from deposits throughout the United States. This circular describes operations at the Eliot plant of the Pacific Coast Aggregates (Inc.). in Livermore Valley near San Francisco, Calif. These papers are designed to disseminate technical information regarding the methods used. The cost tabulations represent local expenditures only and not total production posts. It is recognized that publication of total costs might in some instances cause embarrassment to individual producers as well as to the industry as a whole. On the other hand, operating costs are essential to the technical discussion and study of methods employed. The attention of the reader is specifically called to this differentiation in order that no misunderstanding of the scope of the cost tabulations shall ensue.]

Jan 1, 1933