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By R. J. Burgess

During World War II the shortage of ore revived interest in eastern iron deposits, among which -!2..c "Ile Massachusetts and Connecticut limonites. The Cheever mine, in the Richmond-Salisbury area of Massachusetts, was formerly a large producer of limonite ere. The Bureau of Mines investigated the lateral and downward extensions of the Cheever ore body, which was mined from about 1850 to 1892, by ap open cut 1,000 feet long and also by underground workings. even holes aggregating 1,723 feet, were drilled by the Bureau during the winter of 1943-44. They comprised three diamond-core drill holes, two churn-drill holes, and two rotary-drill holes. A geophysical survey of the Cheever mine area and adjoining ground was made in conjunction with the drilling program. Although this survey did not locate the limonite ore beds, the data were of considerable assistance in locating the limestone contact which forms the footwall of the ore beds. Drilling disclosed two beds of limonite with a heavy overburden of glacial till.

Jan 1, 1949

By M. M. Gilkey

This report on water requirements for the New Mexico mineral industry includes data on industrial operations closely related to mineral production. It contains general information concerning public water supplies at five principal cities and a short discussion of water needs for agriculture. Background data are presented regarding the geography, hydrography, and water laws of New Mexico, as well as precipitation and evaporation characteristics of the State. Most of the information on source, quantity, distribution, cost, and treatment of water was obtained in interviews with company representatives. Water systems at 46 operations are illustrated by schematic waterflow diagrams. The study revealed that the New Mexico mineral industry in 1962 used about 16 billion gallons of new water and reused 152 billion gallons, a total usage of 168 billion gallons. Consumption amounted to 7.6 billion gallons. Of the 16 billion gallons of new water, 11.9 billion gallons was "self- supplied" from ground water sources, and 2.6 billion gallons was self supplied from surface sources. Approximately 1.5 billion gallons was purchased. Some of the water from company-owned wells is piped as far as 30 miles. Reported costs of the self-supplied new water range from 1 to 20 cents per 1,000 gallons and average 8 cents per 1,000 gallons for power and maintenance. Inadequacy of the supply of new water at many operations necessitates large-scale recirculation. Reported costs for recirculating water (power and maintenance) average 1.8 cents per 1,000 gallons. For the entire New Mexico mineral industry in 1962, the value of product was $42 per 1,000 gallons of new water intake and $88 per 1,000 gallons consumed. Analyses of 40 water samples, listed in the appendix, show the wide range in water quality at plants throughout the State. Projection of the 1962 water requirements of the mineral industry indicate that the total demand for new water will increase from the 16 billion gallons used in 1962 to 24 billion gallons in 1980, a 50 percent increase; and to 36 billion gallons in 2000, which is 125 percent more than the 1962 intake of new water.

Jan 1, 1965

By M. M. Gilkey

This report on water requirements for the New Mexico mineral industry includes data on industrial operations closely related to mineral production. It contains general information concerning public water supplies at five principal cities and a short discussion of water needs for agriculture. Background data are presented regarding the geography, hydrography, and water laws of New Mexico, as well as precipitatton and evaporation characteristics of the State. Most of the information on source, quantity, distribution, cost, and treatment of water was obtained in interviews with company representatives. Water systems at 46 operations are illustrated by schematic waterflow diagrams. The study revealed that the New Mexico mineral industry in 1962 used about 16 billion gallons of new water and reused 152 billion gallons, a total usage of 168 billion gallons. Consumption amounted to 7.6 billion gallons. Of the 16 billion gallons of new water, 11.9 billion gallons was "self- supplied" from ground water sources, and 2.6 billion gallons was self supplied from surface sources. Approximately 1.5 billion gallons was purchased. Some of the water from company-owned wells is piped as far as 30 miles. Reported costs of the self-supplied new water range from 1 to 20 cents per 1,000 gallons and average 8 cents per 1,000 gallons for power and maintenance. Inadequacy of the supply of new water at many operations necessitates large-scale recirculation. Reported costs for recirculating water (power and maintenance) average 1.8 cents per 1,000 gallons. For the entire New Mexico mineral industry in 1962, the value of product was $42 per 1,000 gallons of new water intake and $88 per 1,000 gallons consumed. Analyses of 40 water samples, listed in the appendix, show the wide range in water quality at plants throughout the State. Projection of the 1962 water requirements of the mineral industry indicate that the total demand for new water will increase from the 16 billion gallons used in 1962 to 24 billion gallons in 1980, a 50 percent increase; and to 36 billion gallons in 2000, which is 125 percent more than the 1962 intake of new water.

Jan 1, 1965

By H. C. Brunaugh, James Westfield, R. W. Whittaker

"INTRODUCTION The purpose of this circular is to describe the sealing off of a mine fire and subsequent use of carbon dioxide gas to extinguish it.A fire of electrical origin occurred in the Valier mine of the Valier Coal Co., Valier, Franklin County, I11., on March 29, 1949, at about 1:35 p.m. It was discovered about 3:35 p.m. in 5 south west intake airway inby 1 and 2 west panels. The No. 5 southwest airway had caved, and the fire was in the top coal beneath a large fall of rock. All men, except officials, were ordered from the mine. The mine officials decided to seal the fire, and four temporary seals were erected, which isolated approximately 200 feet of 5 south west entry. The seals were completed on March 30 at 2:45 a.m., but on March 31, at 3;40 a.m,, two of them were blown out by an explosion of gas that was produced by the fire. The two seals were rebuilt, the work being completed on March 31 at 12:00 noon, but they were blown out by another gas explosion at 12:10 a.m. on April 1. It was then decided to extinguish the fire with water if possible.To accomplish this, concrete-block dams were constructed. On April 1, about 4:25 a.m., when the dams were about half completed, water was introduced into the fire area through a 2-inch pipe.On April 4, J. G, Crawford, general manager of the Valier Coal Co., notified James Westfield, chief of the Vincennes (Ind.) Branch, U. S. Bureau of Mines, by telephone of the fire in Valier mine and requested assistance to combat it. Westfield, accompanied by F. J. Smith and H. C. Brumbaugh, Federal coal-mine inspectors, went underground and inspected the seals and dams. Later, during a conference with company officials, it was decided that the concrete-block dams were not strong enough to withstand the hydrostatic pressure that would be produced by flooding the fire area. It was then decided to use carbon dioxide gas to extinguish the fire. Four seals were completed, and 5 tons of carbon dioxide gas was introduced into the fire area, which extinguished the fire."

Apr 1, 1950

By J. Fletcher Smoak

Consumption of abrasive materials in the United States increased 22% in value over that of 1982 to $320 million; of which, 59% was manufactured abrasive, 35% was industrial diamond (natural and synthetic), and 6% was natural abrasive. Production value of natural abrasives, excluding industrial diamond, remained virtually unchanged. Production of crude tripol, a porous siliceous rock, decreased slightly; however, shipments of processed tripoli increased 13% in quantity and 32% in value. Production of garnet, an abundant iron-aluminum silicate, continued to increase primarily because of further increases in production from one plant that had completed an expansion program in late 1981. Production of special silica stone, both crude and finished, decreased in 1983 because of reduced demand for oilstones

Jan 1, 1984

By Dorothy M. Richardson

The Bureau of Mines has participated in the American Petroleum Institute Research Project 48A (API-RP48A) program on the Separation and Identification of Sulfur Compounds in Crude Petroleum. The lack of reference compounds or infrared spectral data has made difficult the identification of individual sulfur compounds boiling above 140° C. The recent acquisition of 24 alkylthiophnnes has made possible a limited study of this important class of sulfur compounds. The infrared spectra of 2-monoalkylthiophenes and 2,5-dialkylthiophenes for the 2 to 15p range are reported. Correlations for determining the 2-alkyl and 2,5-dialkyl substituted thiophenes are derived from this information. The 2-alkylthiophenes show a unique pattern in the 5.50 to 6.54 region, while the 2,5-dialkylthiophenes show a distinctive pattern in the 5.6µ to 6.7µ region. A skeletal vibration occurs in the 9.5 to 10.0µ region for all of the thiophenes investigated. These data will aid the infrared spectroscopist in the identification of compounds of the type reported.

Jan 1, 1961

By P. D. Lindahl

[A cost/benefit analysis was conducted by comparing the industry cost to protective structures on low-coal face equipment with the benefits paid for injuries/fatalities considered preventable by the use of these structures. Th industry costs were based on estimates by OEM's and rebuild shops for install protective structures on new and rebuilt face equipment. The accident benefit was based on evaluations performed by the USBM Accident Cost Indicator Model. Industry wide population data were developed on low-coal face equipment and injuries/ fatalities preventable with protective structures. The results of the analysis are to be used as a tool by USBM in determining the feasibility of continuing development of cab and canopy technology for low-coal equipment.]

Jan 1, 1983

By C. Van Dyke, K. Van Dyke, J. Gutierrez, C. Nowack

"Using propidium assay and flow cytometry, we examined how silica exerts its toxicity toward phagocytic cells employing the human neutrophil as a model. This toxicity appears to be associated with calcium bound to silica. Once the silica with calcium is phagocytized, the extra calcium causes the death of the cell. Using ""Ca we found that 6 to 10% of millimolar calcium is bound to milligram amounts of respirable-sized silica (diameter of 5 µ.m or less) at physiological pH. If the silica particles arc coated with an organosilanc (Prosil 28). calcium binding is decreased by 60% as is cell death. Pretreating with INDO IAM (a chelator of intracellular calcium) reduces the cellular death by 80%. Nonfibrogcnic particles- polystyrene beads or coal dust-produced 10% or less cell death in a 4-h period. Silica with no added, external calcium appears to exert toxicity to neutrophils; however, pretreating cells with EDT A decreases cellular death to the level of nonfibrogcnic particles. Chronic toxicity with silica-calcium appears similar to the chronic toxicity in gout where particles cause a cycle of inflammation. c 1993 Academic Press, Inc.Silicosis is an occupational disease caused by the inhalation of fine particles of silica, usually between 0.1 and 5 µ.m in diameter (1). A recent hypothesis explaining silica's toxicity suggested that surface free radicals caused damage to cells (2). This explanation appears doubtful, however, since the addition of silica to water, such as that found in biological systems, quenches free radicals; also, such a hypothesis does not provide basis for a persistent inflammatory pattern that lasts for years. Kane et al. (3) proposed that silica's toxicity resulted from an excessive concentration of calcium ions within the phagocytic cell (macrophages). However, the mechanism that was capable of linking silica to an excess of intracellular, ionic calcium was not explained. The surface of silica is certainly involved because covering the surface with polymers or phospholipids decreases silica's toxicity (4-6).When silica is engulfed by macrophages platelet activating factor and leukotrienes are produced (7, 8). This is the same inflammatory pattern produced by phagocytic cells exposed to the calcium ionophore A23187 and ionic calcium. How could silica be acting like A23187? Perhaps calcium binds to silica extracellulary and then is released intracellulary following phagocytosis; the latter process, in a sense a ""piggy back"" process, would permit activation of inflammation and cell death mechanisms."

Nov 1, 1995

By Ralph H. Espach

The value of careful fractionation in the manufacture of petroleum products is recognized more and more by petroleum refiners. Recent studies have shown that the quality of the products depends largely on the type of fractionating equipment and on the care used in operating the equipment. For example Rue3 has shown that careful fractionation of pressure distillate will greatly reduce the amount of chemical treatment necessary to produce finished gasoline. The advantages of the combination of pipe still and bubble tower in obtaining good fractionation are well recognized in the petroleum industry. However, the equipment designed in the past has in general been much too large for convenient laboratory use. The present paper describes a continuous-distillation apparatus for the laboratory study of fractionation. This apparatus has given very satisfactory results in the study of different crude oils and petroleum products. A discussion of the theory and action of bubble towers has not been given, as this subject has been discussed previously by Cooke and Rue4. It is believed that the distillation curves of the products obtained from this apparatus show clearly its capabilities.

Jan 1, 1928

By Ludwig Schmidt

The policy of buying crude oil on a gravity basis , recently instituted by the major crude oil purchasing agencies in the Mid- Continent field , has caused a new and vital interest to be taken in the work of the U. S. Bureau of Mines for preventing evaporation of crude . From the early years of the industry oil men have recognized that the gravity of crude oil is usually an index of the gasoline content , but it has not been so generally known that the gravity of the crude oil decreases if evaporation is permitted . In 1919 the Bureau of Mines began a survey to determine the evaporation losses of crude petroleum in its various stages of handling from the well to the refinery , The results of this study are presented in Bulletin 200 ( Wiggins , J.H. , Evaporation losses of petroleum in the Mid- Continent Field , Bulletin 200 , U. s . Bureau of Mines , 1922. ) and Bulletin 225 ( Wiggins , J.H. , Methods of decreasing evaporation losses of petroleum , Bulletin 225 , U. S. Bureau of Mines , ( In press ) The findings of this survey were so startling that soon after the preliminary report had been published , several tank companies began manufacturing vapor- tight tanks for the purpose of reducing these important losses . Since that time the development of this type of apparatus has been so rapid that today , every oil trade journal carries numerous advertisements of vapor- tight tanks and equipment as well as technical articles dealing with various problems in connection with the elimination of evaporation losses , whereas three or four years ago the subject was scarcely even thought of. The present report has been prepared in response to numerous requests for information on the apparatus actually being used to prevent evaporation losses . At this time oil operators are also extremely interested in holding the lighter fractions in the crude oil in order to prevent a lowering in gravity . The practice of removing the vapors from crude- oil tanks by means of a slight vacuum and extracting the gasoline from them is not discussed here .

Feb 1, 1923

By Guy A. Johnson

Combining contract and in-house research, the Bureau of Mines has developed and inmine-tested a novel device to improve the field-of-view of operators of off-highway mining equipment. This device utilizes a downward-looking, flat fresnel lens. The lens, plus louvers to reduce glare, is housed in a protective steel structure. The complete unit is called a blind area viewer. The viewer, when mounted on the right- front corner of the deck of most large haulage trucks, will increase a driver's direct field-of-view from about 35 pct (of where he/she has to drive) to about 80 pct. The improved visibility allows the driver to see possible collision hazards and roadway obstacles better, thus improving mine safety and increasing productivity. Economic analysis shows that the blind area viewers, which are now commercially available, pay for themselves in about a month on a 170-ton-capacity truck. The viewers are also applicable to other large mining equipment, such as front-end loaders, draglines, and downhole drills, or any place where seeing around a corner would be advantageous, such as along conveyor flights in processing plants during startups.

Jan 1, 1983

By John L. Dahle

This report documents the research efforts that were undertaken to design, install and test noise abatement devices for use on off-highway haul trucks operating in surface mines. The objective of the program was to reduce the environmental noise from haul trucks. The noise reduction devices that were developed utilized existing technology and were tested on a 50-ton haul truck. The efforts emphasized the reduction of noise emitted from the engine compartment which included the use of side shields, sound absorbing material, improved radiator shroud design, and a modulating clutch fan. Noise tests were conducted using modified SAE test procedures for measuring sound levels around a stationary and moving machine, and inside of the operators compartment. Test results showed a maximum of 4 dB(A) reduction measured 16 feet from the truck. Interior cab noise was reduced 6 dB(A) with the windows and vents closed.

Jan 1, 1983

By Albert W. Deurbrouck

Twelve samples from six Barbour County coal beds were analyzed for this report. The samples collected were generally high sulfur content coals, frequently exceeding 3 percent in the raw-coal sample. Many of them could not be upgraded to acceptable metallurgical standards even by rigorous preparation procedures. The production of coal in the county in 1963 amounted to almost 3 million tons of which 44 percent was mechanically cleaned.

Jan 1, 1965

According to contemporary psychophysical theory, the relationship between the strength of a perceived sensation (S) and the intensity of a physical stimulus (1) is best expressed by a power relationship.(1) S=kln (1) This psychophysical principle has been applied to many practical problems, including the development of scales or guidelines for effective temperature, loudness, brightness, and ratings of perceived exertion. Based on the results of a number of experiments using a variety of scaling methods and a number of different muscle groups, the pooled estimate of the exponent for muscular effort and force is 1.7.(2) When applying this principle to work situations, it is assumed that individuals are capable and willing to consistently identify a specified level of perceived sensation (S). For manual materials handling tasks, this specified level is usually the maximum acceptable weight or maximum acceptable force. These phrases are defined by the instructions given to the test subject:(3) You are to work on an incentive basis, working as hard as you can without straining yourself or becoming unusually tired, weakened, overheated, or out of breath. If the task involves lifting, the experiment measures the maximum acceptable weight of lift. Similarly, there are maximum acceptable weights for lowering and carrying. Such tests are isoinertial in nature; however, in contrast to the tests described in Chapter 3, they are typically used to test submaximal, repetitive handling capabilities. Data are also available for pushing and pulling. These are reported as maximum acceptable forces and include data for initial as well as sustained pulling or pushing. Why Use Psychophysical Methods? Snook identified several advantages and disadvantages to using psychophysical methods for determining maximum acceptable weights.(4) The advantages include: • Realistic simulation of industrial work (face validity); • Ability to study intermittent tasks (physiological steady state not required); • Results are consistent with the industrial engineering concept of "a fair day's work for a fair day's pay"; • Results are reproducible; and • Results appear to be related to low-back pain (content validity).

Jan 1, 1998

By Mark Sanders

The report describes three experiments that were conducted to determine the effects of size and weight of the miner's battery pack on performance in the low seam coal environment. Three separate experiments were carried out in a simulated low seam coal mine. The first experiment tested the sensitivity of task measures (i.e., subjects performed locomotion) shoveling, cart pushing, and timbering tasks) to detect variations in the size and weight of the battery pack. The results of the first experiment demonstrated that only the locomotion tasks were sensitive to size and weight variations. The second experiment, therefore, focused on the locomotion tasks and tested the effects of varying size and weight on task completion time. The third experiment was designed to compare the present battery pack to a radically different configuration of power cells. The most important findings were that changes in weight affected locomotion times but changes in size and configuration had small and inconsistent effects. Opinion data of subjects indicated a strong preference for a battery nark belt concept.

Jan 1, 1980

By J. B. Littlefield

The Greenburg-Smith impinger was developed at the Bureau of Mines in cooperation with the United States Public Health Service in 1922 in the course of an investigation of dust-sampling instruments available at that time. Although it is not used extensively outside of the United States, it is now soused in this country to collect samples for the determination of any dustiness, and most of the information correlating degree of dustiness with physiological effect has been obtained by the impinger method. The chief disadvantages in the use of the regular impinger, especially in mines and other places accessible with difficulty, are its bulk, weight, and power requirements. It requires a source either of electricity or of compressed air, which necessitates connections and extension of existing supply lines to each sampling point; the only alternative is the use of a relatively large pump hand-operated with considerable effort.

Jan 1, 1937

By John S. Dunning

This is one of a. series of papers being prepared for and published by the United States Bureau of Mines, describing raining and milling methods at crushed-stone plants throughout the United States. These papers are designed to disseminate technical information regarding the methods used. The cost tabulations represent operating expenditures only and not total production costs. It is recognized that publication of total production costs might in man; instances cause embarrassment to individual producers as well as to the industry as a whole. However, operating costs are essential to technical discussion and study of the methods employed. The attention of the reader is specifically called to this differentiation in order that the scope of the cost tabulations shall not be misunderstood. This paper deals with the quarrying and crushing methods used at the Avon Mountain trap-rock quarry of the Atlas Sand, Gravel & Stone Co., in West Hartford, Conn.

Jan 1, 1936

By Jack L. Henry

The Bureau of Mines conducted seven pioneering experiments in a 12-inch-diameter Kroll reduction reactor to examine the feasibility of coreducing the chlorides of Ti, AI, and V to produce a homogeneous titanium alloy sponge. The coreduction studies proceeded in a normal manner, and the yields of sponge were comparable with those of pure titanium sponge made in the same reactor. Vanadium concentration was very uniform throughout the sponge cake when VC14 in solution in TiCl4 was fed into the molten magnesium. More difficulty was encountered in feeding solid VCl2 and AIC13. Vanadium and aluminum concentration in the sponge was not uniform, and mechanical difficulties were experienced with the small-scale screw feeder. Although the sponge varied in composition from region to region, the ingots prepared from it were uniform in composition.

Jan 1, 1974

The Thermo-MIE personal DataRAM dust monitor (pDR) is a light-scattering instrument approved for use in gassy underground mines by the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). However, the use of light-scattering monitors has been inhibited by concerns about inaccurate readings resulting from changes in dust size distribution and composition, as well as concerns about the impact of moisture in the mine air. Because of this concern, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) evaluated the pDR using available data from laboratory tests and mine surveys. The data show that accuracy can vary widely from test to test and mine to mine. In most cases, the results can be improved by using a companion gravimetric measurement to adjust the pDR data.

Jan 1, 2006

By L. P. Kleinmann

To control the formation of acid drainage at its source, the Bureau of Mines has investigated the role of iron-oxidizing bacteria in the oxidation of pyrite. In laboratory tests, it was determined that Thio-bacillus ferrooxidans could be controlled in coal refuse using anionic surfactants, with an associated decrease in acid production of about 75 pet. Based on these results, large-scale tests were conducted at an 8-acre active coal refuse area in northern West Virginia and an 11-acre inactive refuse pile in southern West Virginia. Acid production was decreased 60 to 95 pet for 4 to 5 months after application of 55 gal/ acre of 30-pct sodium lauryl sulfate solution. To date, effluent surfactant concentrations have been extremely low. Either a hydroseeder or a road-watering truck can be used to apply the surfactant. Since the surfactant solution must reach the pyritic material to be effective, sites that have been reclaimed are generally not amenable to these procedures. A simple laboratory test is described that provides an estimate of adsorption potential; this can be used to calculate a safe application rate.

Jan 1, 1983