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By J. E. Zajic, E. A. Sullivan, T. R. Jack

"The release of vanadium, iron, nickel and titanium from the cokes produced in the upgrading of Alberta oil sands bitumen has been assessed for simple chemical leaching processes. Flexicoker coke (Exxon Engineering and Research) has been found to be quite amenable to the recovery of vanadium as well as nickel, iron and some titanium by these techniques, whereas fluid coker coke (Syncrude) and delayed coker coke (Great Canadian Oil Sands) are relatively intractable under the mild conditions employed. The factors affecting the extent of vanadium release are discussed in terms of the surface area accessible, the wettability of the material, and the chemical and physical composition of the coke particles in each case.A novel biologically assisted heap leaching procedure for f1exicoker coke is also described, based on the growth of the chemolithotrophic bacteria, Thiobacillus thiooxidans A TCC 8085, on elemental sulphur added to the coke."

Jan 1, 1980

By W. R. Hargrave

"Mining OperationsOre will be mined by open pit techniques. Because of the high grade of the deposit and the low strip ratio, mining rates are small relative to most other open pit operations.The ore deposit is located in the valley of the main fork of Red Dog Creek. The bulk of the deposit is located on the southwestern flank of the creek, but mineralization does traverse the creek in both the north and east directions.Erosion has exposed the orebody in a number of locations, and has resulted in oxidation of the mineralization closer to the surface. Although much of this oxide material is very high grade, it leaches readily and, at least in the initial phases of the operation, will be stockpiled and not treated in the concentrator.During construction, 2.3 million mt. (2.5 million st.) of overburden and waste will be stripped from the orebody to expose ore for initial operations. Competent non-mineralized waste will be used to build roads and waste dumps, but the bulk of material removed consists of oxide or ice-rich soils and weathered rock which is not suitable for construction.The annual ore mining rate will be 1.9 million mt. (21. million st.). The strip ratio will start off at 1.2 to 1, falling to 1.0 to 1 by year 5 and ultimately to 0.8 to 1.Bench heights are set at 7.6 m (25 ft). Pit slopes will vary depending on the material present in the wall. The slope, through competent waste and the sulphide package, was set at 45 degrees. This is flattened to 26 degrees (i.e. 2: 1) through overburden and Upper Kivalina shales. The Kivalina Shales are an ice-rich shale whose carbonate matrix has been leached out and which exhibits little or no strength as it thaws. In addition, a 100 ft containment berm will be left in the wall below overburden and Kivalina."

Jan 1, 1989

By I Wilkomirsky

The neutralization of S02 from copper smelter gases to produce calcium sulphate (anhydrite) is considered an attractive alternative to sulphuric acid production. To develop the required technology for the process, a three-stages fluidized bed reactor prototype was designed and operated using both high and low grade limestone and gases with 2, 8 and 12 vol -% S02. The results obtained shows that at 800°C and up to 8 vol-% S02 in the gases, the capture of S02 reaches near 99% with limestone conversion to anhydrite of 45 to 48%. A larger pilot plant is presently being built at the Codelco El Teniente-Caletones Smelter to demostrate the technology and to evaluate the economics of the process. Cu2007

Jan 1, 2007

By N. Katsikaros, A. Lewis-Gray, P. Richards

"To optimize gold recovery in complex leach-to-electrowinning processes, Gekko Systems developed the Gekko resin exchange column (G-REX) as an intermediate step, using a highly gold-selective resin to isolate contaminant metals. The AuRIX®100 resin produced by Purolite is licensed exclusively to Gekko, with the G-REX column designed specifically for this resin. Operational experience has been gained at the Castlemaine Goldfields Ballarat gold mine. In near-continuous operation since 2008, the Ballarat plant treats unclarified concentrate leach solution. The extension of this technology to higher throughputs and more complex chemistry is discussed.RÉSUMÉ Afin d’optimiser la récupération de l’or dans des procédés complexes impliquant la lixiviation suivie de l’extraction électrolytique, Gekko Systems a développé la colonne Gekko de résines échangeuses d’ions (G-REX) comme étape intermédiaire, à l’aide d’une résine hautement sélective pour la récupération de l’or qui permet d’isoler les métaux contaminants. Gekko détient la licence exclusive pour la résine AuRIX®100 produite par Purolite, et la colonne G-REX a été spécifiquement conçue pour cette résine. C’est à la mine d’or Ballarat de Castlemaine Goldfields que l’expérience opérationnelle a été acquise. L’usine de Ballarat, en exploitation quasi-continue depuis 2008, traite une solution concentrée non clarifiée de lixiviation. L’extension de cette technologie à des capacités supérieures et à une chimie plus complexe est examinée."

Jan 1, 2017

By Sadough vanini Ali

Hot deformation behavior of functionally graded steel (FGS) was investigated via conducting hot compression tests at different temperatures and strain rates. Functionally graded steels consist of ferrite, austenite, bainite and martensite layers that are made by diffusion of alloy elements during the melting process. The zenerhollomon parameter has been used to describe the flow stress variations as a function of temperatures and strain rates. The parameter values for all the layers via using the boundary conditions was determined based on composite graded behaviors. Furthermore by applying the rule of phase mixtures, the whole strain rate applied on composite would be the sum of layers strain rates considering the layers volume fraction, while the layers have the same stress. Consequently the composite flow stress for each strain rate and temperature was determined.

Oct 1, 2011

By Amin Saravari, Jamal Jafari, Abbas Sam

"The fourth concentrate production plant includes the comminution systems and the medium-low intensity magnetic separators (LIMS). Based on different conditions, two types of materials are fed into the plant. Type A: 70% of mine ore and 30% of reject materials from magnetite plant and type B: 100% of mine ore. The goal of the present study was to increase the iron grade and the blain number with low sulfur content in final concentrate as the pellet feed. An appropriate pellet feed should have more than 67% of iron, less than 0.1% of sulfur and a Blain number of more than 1800 cm2/g. The Fe, S and Blain no. amounts for the present concentrate are 66.6%, 0.95%, and 500 cm2/g (feed type:A) and 67.8%, 2.3%, and 450 cm2/g (feed type: B), respectively. In this research, the plant improvement efficiency was evaluated by changing the feed particle size distribution and using the flotation system. Laboratory experiments were designed based on the three circuits:1) LIMS (Low Intensity Grinding Rolls) feed grinding-LIMS test-flotation test2) LIMS feed grinding-flotation test-LIMS test3) LIMS concentrate grinding-flotation testThe best results were obtained using the first circuit at the LIMS feed size (d80) of 132 ?m. The processing results using the circuit no. 1 (feed type: A), showed a LIMS concentrate with 69.8% of Fe and 0.36% of sulfur. In this case, the final concentrate (after flotation) with Fe grade of 70.3%, sulfur content of 0.07% and Blain no. of 1571 cm2/g were obtained. In case of the feed type of B, the LIMS concentrate with Fe grade of 68.7%, and sulfur grade of 1.6% was achieved. Also, the Fe and sulfur contents were 69.3%, and 0.4% respectively with a Blain number of 1112 cm2/g. According to the obtained results, it was suggested that a LIMS feed comminution along with a LIMS and flotation systems are necessary to achieve an appropriate iron and sulfur grades with an acceptable blain number. To reach a concentrate Blain number as a pelletizing feed, a High Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR) system at the end of the processing line was recommended."

Jan 1, 2016

By F. Chevarin

The reaction of O2 with the carbon anode is considered as the main parasitic chemical reaction affecting Hall-Heroult process anodes. The current study aims at investigating the influence of the microstructure of baked anode on its overconsumption. Samples were removed from different positions of an industrial anode. Density, porosity, Lc and BET specific surface area were measured. The anode reactivity was evaluated based on the weight losses for the samples resulting from the reaction of anode with air at 550°C after 7h. The essential parameters determined to control the air reactivity are closed porosity, Lc and pores with a pore entrance radius of 1.5, 8.5 and 12 p.m. The knowledge of effects of these parameters allows better understanding of the reactivity of anodes and consequently reduction of their overconsumption in electrolysis bath.

Jan 1, 2011

By T. T. Chen

The iron- and elemental sulphur-rich residues generated during batch and continuous pressure oxidative leaching of Inco Limited's Voisey's Bay nickel sulphide concentrate at 150°C in sulphate-chloride media have been characterized by X-ray diffraction analysis and scanning electron microscopy. The residues produced during the continuous leaching of the pentlandite- and pyrrhotite-rich concentrate consisted predominantly of hematite and elemental sulphur, with minor amounts of goethite. Although the iron species generated in the batch leaching tests were similar to those formed during continuous leaching, the morphologies of the hematite and goethite particles were significantly different. In addition to the tiny spheroids and bubble-like particles, the hematite and goethite generated during batch leaching occurred as larger "hollow" shell-like particles that contained residual pentlandite or sulphur cores. Although the leach solution from which the iron oxides had precipitated contained 5-15 g/L sodium, sodium jarosite was detected only in trace amounts in a few of the leach residues.

Jan 1, 2006

By J. W. Reynolds

"The use of approved fire-resistant hydraulic fluids in equipment operating underground was made mandatory in British Columbia by amendment to the Provincial Mines Regulation Act effective January 1, 1975. This paper covers the action taken to achieve this, in the largest underground metal mine in British Columbia. Some evaluation of costs and effects based on experience to date is included.BackgroundAn amendment to the Mines Regulation Act of the Province of British Columbia was passed in July 1974 as follow s: "" Rule 111 (b) Hydraulic Fluids. After the first day of January 1975, all hydraulic fluids used in equipment operating underground shall be of a fire-resistant type accept able to the chief inspector.""Unquestionably, its intent was justified as a safety improvement measure. The list of fires in mines involving machinery where hydraulic fluid was a factor in the fires is long and sobering. In British Columbia, in a 22-month period from 1972 to 1974, there were six fires in metal mines resulting in extensive equipment damage and injury to four workmen. Nevertheless, no provision was made for research or development of systems modifications compatible with conditions encountered in B.C. and, as late as June 1977, the Mining Association of British Columbia continued to argue that fire suppression systems should be considered sufficient until a universal suitable hydraulic fluid could be developed. The sole concession was to issue permits for continued use of mineral oil in equipment bought prior to 1975 in order to allow producing operations to continue. The burden of developing the necessary technology was laid on the industry.The Sullivan Mine at Kimberley, the largest and longest established underground mine in the province, and Cominco's most important source of ore s for its smelter at Trail, B.C., was at the outset of a conversion from conventional to trackless mechanized mining methods in pillar recovery operation s. Introduction of fire-resistant hydraulic fluid s had to be done in a period of change, in many instances on equipment for which no data existed, and called for research which had to be done while retraining the work force.The introductory phase is complete. All equipment is on FRF, the requirements of Rule 111(b) are being satisfied, and a number of research and development programs continue."

Jan 1, 1980

By Amir Asadi

Various damage modes that evolve with time in polymer composite laminates, such as transverse cracking, vertical cracking, delamination, and fiber fracture, as well as the interaction among them, influence the time-dependent degradation in modulus (creep) and strength (creep rupture) of polymer composite laminates. This study is focused on modeling the time-dependent evolution of transverse cracking in [90] plies of a multidirectional polymer composite laminate [0m/190n]. This model uses a two-dimensional variational analysis to determine the stress state at any given creep time. The elastic stored energy, determined using this stress state, is compared with a critical energy for fracture to determine the crack evolution with creep time. Model predictions are compared with experimental results to validate the model.

Jan 1, 2010

By Sadough vanini Ali

Charpy impact energy of functionally graded steels produced by electroslag remelting in crack divider configuration has been modeled in various strain rates. It has been well known that majority of materials indicate different behaviors under different strain rates and temperatures. Therefore, modifying the elastic-plastic model considering the effects of strain rates and temperature gives us an acceptable prediction of these composites behaviors in impact test. In this investigation, graded steel was divided in to several layers in which the layers have the same strains under the impact. Constitutive equation describing the flow stress variations as a function of strain rates and temperatures, have been used to express the stressstrain behavior of layers. The parameter values of constitutive equation determined for all the layers via using the boundary conditions based on composite graded behaviors which were the characterized ferrite, austenite, bainite and martensitte phases. Consequently by applying the rule of phase mixtures and ascribing the impact energy of each layer to the area of stress-strain curve of the same layer, the whole impact energy of composite is the sum of layers impact energy with considering the layers volume fraction.

Oct 1, 2011

By V. A. Leão, A. M. Silva, S. M. Bertolino, B. C. S. Ferreira, D. Guimarães

Although not considered a high risk pollutant as compared to toxic metals and acidity, environmental agencies worldwide are proposing regulations to control sulphate in effluents and drainages by setting a threshold value varying between 250 mg/L and 500 mg/L. The aim of this study was thus to compare four different techniques for removing sulphate ions from mining/metallurgy effluents. The first alternative studied was sulphate removal by precipitation as ettringite. Treating a synthetic solution containing 1650 mg/L sulphate at 22±1 ºC resulted in removals close to 85% during continuous precipitation. Sulphate sorption was also investigated using three different ion exchange resins as well as limestone. Fixed bed experiments produced sulphate loadings of up to 70 mg SO4 2-/L resin, at pH 2.0. In neutral wastewaters, limestone is also a potential adsorbent producing a maximum particle loading of 19 mg/g. Sulphate sorption on limestone seems to be an alternative to treating mine waters with sulphate concentrations below the 1200-2000 mg/L range, where lime precipitation is not effective. Subsequently, sulphate removal by sulphate reducing bacteria was also investigated and it was observed that reactor’s hydrodynamic conditions and the choice of substrate are important factors for the process. The different technical aspects of each technology are addressed.

Jan 1, 2014

By D. B. Johnson

Acidic, metal-rich waters generated at working metal mines and abandoned mine sites are generally considered to be major pollutants of the environment. However, the metals they contain often have significant value of their own, or as sources of useful mineral products. We have developed novel bioreactor systems that facilitate the selective recovery of various transition metals (e.g. copper, zinc and iron) as defined minerals that can be recovered and recycled. The bioreactors use novel species of acidophilic bacteria. Ferrous iron is oxidised by Ferrovum myxofaciens, a specialist bacterium that forms large amounts of exopolymers and grows as filamentous streamers in flowing mine waters, and the ferric iron generated is precipitated as the mineral schwertmannite, a small proportion of which is used to remove any arsenic present in mine water. Copper and zinc are precipitated as sulphides using H2S generated by consortia of acidophilic and acid-tolerant sulphate-reducing bacteria in a continuous flow, on-line low pH bioreactor. Transition metal sulfides can be segregated by precipitating them, either on-line or off-line, at different pH values. The modular units that have been developed can be configured to treat mine waters of different chemistries. A hypothetical acidic (pH 2.5) mine water stream containing 500 mg/L iron, 100 mg/L of copper and zinc, 50 mg/L of aluminum and manganese, 2 mg/L of arsenate, and discharged at a rate of 10 L/s, is used as an example of the potential application of the mineral-generating bioreactors. The environmental benefits and economic implications of considering mine waters as resources rather than wastes are discussed.

Aug 1, 2013

By Leroy G. Hagenbuch

"IntroductionAn integrated Truck Management Information System (Truck MIS) evolves as seemingly separate functions combined to yield a single homogeneous result / product. The concept of a computer integrated Truck MIS includes truck dispatch, truck maintenance management and truck weighing.A truck management system is only as good as the information / data bases input to it. The concept of an integrated system works best with automated data gathering. Automated data gathering provides timely and normally, the most accurate historical information/data bases. Data bases are, however, historical, which is a problem to be overcome in a computerized truck management information system, especially in regards to a truck dispatch system as loading sites / loading conditions and some dump site conditions continually change. As these changes occur, data base s must change as well, and thus the need for the continual update of data bases that the computer uses for a Truck MIS.For a truck dispatch system to achieve reliability / viability, dispatch decisions need to revolve around real time data gathered in an automated way. Integration of all truck management function s through automated data gathering lead s to the best over-all system.An integrated system is a combination of many different factors and is only as good as each factor / building block put in the system. With the proper building blocks, an integrated Truck MIS is very feasible - an MIS System that includes weighing, time and motion study, truck maintenance and maintenance management, as well as truck dispatch.Truck MISAn integrated Truck MIS provides for truck dispatch as the ultimate end result, a truly automated /integrated truck dispatch system (to function non-operator-dependent). The following comprises its central building blocks:-Time.- Haul Cycle Segments.Truck Status, i.e. Load on truck,- being loaded,- loaded,- unloaded,- in service,- out of service.- Vehicle Location.Loading Equipment Status.- in service,- out of service.Optional- distance travelled in each haul segment.With this data provided on a non-operator dependent basis, it is possible to build good data bases so a computer can make truck dispatch decisions. Knowing what information is needed as the central core to a good Truck MIS, how can this information be automatically gathered and fed into a central control computer?"

Jan 1, 1986

By M. J. Sapko, R. W. Watson, E. S. Weiss

The relative incerdivity of several blasting agents was evaluated in the Bureau's Bruceton Experimental Mine (BEM) . The minimum charge weights resulting in the ignition of predispersed oil shale dust clouds were measured for each of the explosives. A 400 g unstennned charge of ANFO (ammonium nitrate-fuel oil) was sufficient to initiate an oil shale dust explosion, whereas a 1000 g unstenuned charge of an emulsion blend did not ignite the dust even with the addition of 4% methane gas. Several stenuning materials were evaluated in the BEM for their effectiveness in preventing the ignition of near stoichiometric methane-air mixtures. Water stenuning was superior to all other inhibitors tested against methane. Explosibility testing of fine sulfide ore dust in a 20 L chamber and in the BEM show that the dust is capable of propagating an explosion given nominal concentrations of 700 to 800 g/m3. Results are encouraging and irrlicate that there is merit in pursuing explosive composition as a means of reducing ignition probability of oil shale and sulfide dust clouds generated during nonnal blasting operations. The proper selection of explosives and stenuning materials should significantly reduce the probability of secondacy dust explosions in oil shale and sulfide ore mining.

May 11, 1988

By R. A. Horn, S. M. Telfer

"Canada has a per capita GDP second only to Japan among the G7 countries and a positive trade balance which ranks third among the world's major economies. International trade represents a very large part of the national economy and as a proportion of GDP is larger than that of all the other G7 countries with the exception of Germany. On the negative side the Canadian current account deficit relative to the size of the economy is significantly worse than that of all major industrial countries, due mainly to the cost of servicing an immense foreign debt and to a large and worsening negative trade balance in manufacturing.The outflow of money may be reduced by increasing the productivity and competitiveness of those sectors of the economy in which Canada already has a leading competitive position and which have the potential for further growth. The mining industry is uniquely qualified in this respect in that Canada is the western world's largest producer of metals and mineral products and has the geology and the exploration skill to replenish reserves assuming that an adequate level of investment is maintained. In 1989 the minerals industry contributed $8 billion to the country's balance of payments and with the exception of forestry is the only sector of the economy which has shown consistently increasing foreign earnings over the long term.In recent years there has been a decline in exploration in Canada and a significant increase in countries such as Chile. The demand for hard currency to finance the development of the newly emerging capitalist economies of the CIS and Eastern Europe is also driving these countries to seek foreign investment to allow them to exploit their natural wealth more efficiently. Canada is therefore facing growing international competition for risk capital and in the future its trade surplus will probably decline in the face of lower cost foreign production.Canada rightly exercises a high level of environmental control on its mining operations; however a significant deterrent to investment is the fundamentally unjust application of the many provincial and federal environmental laws, under which a mining company, even if it takes every measure to protect the environment, runs the risk of eternal and unlimited future liability. If this situation is not rectified the effect will be an increase in global pollution as mines in countries with more lax application of law and regulations controlling environmental damage replace those of Canada. Tax benefits and incentives are a more efficient means than arbitrary regulations in minimizing environmental damage."

Jan 1, 1994

By Matthew Janes

Advantages: Clean samples Low sample disturbance Very low spoil Versatile Fast Penetrates all formations Resonant Drill 100 or 150 kW Self tuning to resonance Rotation to 100 rpm Increased depth in dense soil Increased productivity Reduce water use Reduce casing plugging

May 1, 2013

By Yi-Chun Lin

Mechanical/Electrical/Piping (MEP) systems, due to their complexity and diversity, are the most intricate part of building construction. This being the case, Combined Services Drawings (CSD) and Structure, Electric and Mechanic(SEM) drawings can ensure that all coordination issues are resolved prior to construction. Construction companies attempt to apply Building Information Modeling (BIM) to manage and integrate engineering information and solutions efficiently into the CSD and SEM processes to enhance the accuracy of design and the efficiency of review. There are several powerful commercial tools, such as Bentley Navigator, Autodesk Navisworks, and Tekla BIMsight, that can review the integrated BIM model and detect conflicts in systems, and allow planners to correct the conflict issues one at a time. However, for increasing numbers of conflicts, this may be inefficient, and requires them to be arranged in a list according to impact and seriousness before solving them. For this reason, this research implements a module for conflict impact assessment based on rule-based reasoning to classify and weigh conflict impact and seriousness, and highlight the conflicted objects in the BIM system in different colors depending on their conflict type and seriousness during the analysis. This system not only detects and lists possible conflicts and errors, but also sorts them according to the severity of impact and conflict type. Planners can effectively modify the BIM models according to these conflicts as they are listed and visualized in the BIM system. If these conflicts, such as pipeline interference and problems of insufficient space, can be avoided in the early stages of planning, it facilitates the achievement of project objectives in quality, scheduling, and cost.

Aug 1, 2013

By Minghui Li

China is the largest coal producer in the world. In 2012, the coal production in China is 3.65billion tonnes, accounting for approximately 49% of global coal production. The raw coal production in 2012 was 3.8% more than the year 2011. 56% of total raw coal has been washed. The increase in raw coal production also promotes technology to be developed and brings separation capacity become larger and larger in coal processing in China. At present, over 40 extra-large scale coal preparation plants (each plant has capacity of more than 10 Mtpa) are in operation in China, the largest one is 32.5 Mtpa. Heavy medium separation are widely used in new built coal preparation, the washing limit for thermal coal feed lower and lower, the equipment selection tends larger which brings the whole washing system simplified, the local equipment developed and manufactured are more and more used. By discussing designs of several typical thermal coal preparation plants and coking coal preparation plants in China, this thesis introduces the current design of China?s extra-large coal preparation plants, and sums up the prevailing design features and trends of extra-large coal preparation plants.

Aug 1, 2013

By K. Forsberg, A. Rasmuson, R. Rodriguez Varela, J. Martinez De La Cruz

"This study analyzes the separation of rare earth elements by means of a supported liquid membrane (SLM) with the final objective of recovering REE from an apatite concentrate (Alemrajabi, Forsberg, & Rasmuson, 2015; Mohammadi, Forsberg, Martinez de la Cruz, & Rasmuson, 2015). In this study, the feed phase consists of an aqueous phase containing REE, the membrane phase contains the organic solvent and carrier (D2EHPA and EHEHPA), and the stripping phase is a hydrochloric acid solution. An evaluation of mass fluxes, separation efficiency, and membrane performance is conducted. In order to analyze the suitability of liquid membranes in the extraction of REE, a deeper insight into the mechanisms causing instability is needed. In this study, surface tension is considered as the key factor of Marangoni instabilities and spontaneous emulsification.INTRODUCTIONThe demand of REE and their compounds has increased considerably due to their special physicochemical features that make them crucial elements for numerous high-tech applications, including wind turbines, hybrid cars, mobile phones, and defense technologies. They are also extensively utilized in traditional industries such as nuclear energy, petroleum, metallurgy, agriculture, and textiles (Xie, Zhang, Dreisinger, & Dyole, 2014; Zhang, Wu, Bian, & Zeng, 2014).Solvent extraction is widely used for the separation of REE (Xie et al., 2014; Zhao, Huo, Pan, Li, & Liu, 2014). Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) and 2-ethylhexylphosphonic acid mono-2-ethylhexyl ester (EHEHPA) are two of the most effective extractants for the separation of rare earth elements among organophosphorus extractants (Gupta & Krishnamurthy, 2005). However, the difficulty in stripping loaded D2EHPA extractant, especially for heavy REE, has limited its utilization. Yttrium can be stripped at lower acidities in EHEHPA systems compared to D2EHPA systems (Gupta et al., 2005), but the extraction efficiency is lower. Conventional solvent extraction by mixer-settlers is restricted by its large solvent inventory and loading limits, and suffers from phase disengagement, emulsification, loss of solvent, and flooding problems (Swain, Jeong, Lee, & Lee, 2007). In this context, supported liquid membranes (SLMs) present a potential alternative due to their advantages, being low solvent inventory, process simplicity, low energy and operational costs, great enrichment ratio, and combination of extraction and stripping into one single step. A SLM is a system in which two aqueous phases are separated by an organic liquid membrane suspended in the pores of a porous support by capillary forces. One of the aqueous phases is the feed solution with the solute and the other is the stripping or receiving solution. The solute diffuses through the liquid membrane and then is extracted into the stripping solution (Kislik, 2010)."

Jan 1, 2016