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Mining and mineral processing makes a vital contribution to AustraliaÆs national export income, and our society today is critically dependent on its products. Despite the importance of this industry, its operations often come under scrutiny because of its high potential impact on local environments û both social and ecological. The challenge for the minerals industry today is to make the most responsible and best possible use of the national resource base, maximising overall resource utilisation.Research efforts and industry implementation of improvements have been moving in this direction for a considerable time already, and the industry has a long history of process innovation and improvement in Australia. Examples range from the early development of gold cyanidation and mineral flotation to more recent work undertaken under the auspices of AMIRA or through the various CRCs and research organisations such as the AJ Parker CRC for Hydrometallurgy, the Cooperative Research Centre for Mining Technology and Equipment and the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre.However, the nature of research and innovation in the mining and mineral processing sector is changing, as the industry itself copes with the pressures introduced by globalisation, industry consolidation and commodity price cycles. Large firms that have historically maintained a tradition of corporate technology and a culture of innovation are moving to outsource their technological and research competencies and are adopting æfast-followerÆ mentalities. At the same time, the challenges of sustainable development that need to be addressed are many-faceted, multidisciplinary, and require a holistic approach for significant achievements to be realised. Many sustainability issues, particularly those pertaining to environmental and safety issues, are shared across large sections of the minerals industry, and are seen as æindustryÆ problems beyond the scope of a single company.In this environment, collaborative research efforts are becoming the dominant mechanisms for building on past innovations and ensuring the continued success of the mining and mineral processing industries within a framework of sustainable development.

Jan 1, 2004

By P Wood, S Leveritt

This paper will introduce some innovative strategies for simulator training that are intended to improve the level of safety and operational performance of heavy equipment operators. The key strategy is to design simulator training to deliver improved work performance outcomes. This strategy is underpinned by a process for engaging workers in knowledge discovery and transfer that has been developed as an outcome of an Australian Coal Association Research Program (ACARP) funded project conducted at open cut coal mines in Australia. The process is expected to deliver improvements in the safety and operational performance of heavy equipment operators by informing training content about how experienced operators manage unexpected situations around the site. Tapping into the tacit knowledge that experienced operators gather over time can provide site specific and timely information about situational cues used to manage the unexpected. This type of information complements basic skills training by helping the trainee understand the operational context in which the acquired skills will be applied. Inexperienced operators have traditionally gained experience through their own actions, observing the actions of others and by taking the advice of mentors who have æbeen there, done thatÆ and developed operational decision making skills for safe and productive work performance. Leadership and mentoring techniques that contribute to effective knowledge delivery will also be discussed.Other simulator training strategies include refresher training, change management, emergency response training and testing the usability of new equipment and technologies prior to their introduction on-site. A key challenge ahead for the resources sector is the development of knowledge elicitation techniques that suit the operational workforce. A challenge for simulation and modelling professionals is to develop and refine techniques that support cost-effective customisation and regular updates of simulator scenarios.CITATION:Leveritt, S and Wood, P, 2012. Raising the simulator training bar - Strategies for improved work performance and effective utilisation of site-based simulators, in Proceedings Eighth Open Pit OperatorsÆ Conference , pp 65-70 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 18, 2012

By S H. Sie, R Seetharam, K Naito, T Takagi

Tin-polymetallic vein type deposits are one of the major source of metal producers in the Circum Pacific Belt. This type of deposit is of great importance for the modem electronics and medical industries because of their high content of rare metals (especially indium and bismuth). We have studied two representatives, Tosham of India (Cu-In-Bi-Sn-W-Ag-Au), and Mount Pleasant of Canada (Zn-Cu-In-Bi-Sn-W), using proton and electron microprobes in order to delineate the distribution of medicallhigh-tech rare metals. The electron microprobe study showed that major indium carrier in such type of deposit are roquesite (CulnS2), sphalerite, stannite and a Cu-Zn-Fe-In-Sn-S mineral; and that indium is incorporated in sulfides by coupled substitution like Cu + In = 2(Zn + Fe). The proton microprobe showed that indium at trace levels is also present in chalcopyrite and pyrite. In addition, zinc, copper, arsenic, antimony, selenium, tin, and bismuth are common in chalcopyrite and pyrite. Arsenopyrite contains nickel, copper, zinc, silver, tin, antimony and bismuth. In chalcopyrite and pyrite, zinc, arsenic, indium, bismuth and lead are higher in Mount Pleasant ore, but silver is higher at Tosham. Also thallium and gold were found only in Tosham pyrite. The Tosham deposit is genetically related to S-type magma, while the Mount Pleasant deposit is related to A-type granite. Tosham ore contains zinc-bearing biotites that coexist with chalcopyrite in ore bodies but Mount Pleasant ore lacks such biotite. We propose that the difference in elemental abundance between the two deposits are caused by the different character of source magma and different mineral associations of the ore body.

Jan 1, 1995

By D P. Blair

The theme of this conference is blasting productivity. This article only considers the technology aspect of this theme, and in particular, the collection and analysis of experimental data. In many cases, field trials are set up to collect data on variables such as fragmentation and vibration with the aim of comparing different explosive products and/or blast designs. An important aspect of such trials is the collection of sufficient data to draw sound conclusions. In this regard, there is no doubt that the scatter in real data is the root cause of all problems of obtaining misleading results due to an insufficient number of trials. This article shows that the typical one-off trial has a high probability of producing misleading information, which could be considered to be worse than having no information at all. Assuming that sufficient data has been collected, this article also highlights the methods that can be used to make the most of that data. These methods include the application of appropriate statistics that are dependent on the nature of the scatter in the data, and the use of some of the more recent filtering and spectral approaches that can be used to reduce the noise in measured blast signals and increase the resolution of their spectral characteristics.

Nov 8, 2011

By L J. Strachan, O J. Hawes, S W. Crossen, R C. Roberts

The Albany Conglomerate is a widespread geological unit found in northern areas of Auckland, New Zealand. It has previously been described as part of the early Miocene Waitemata Group which underlies most of Auckland. Much of the Waitemata Group comprises weak interbedded sandstones and mudstones, but also includes conspicuous conglomeratic units such as the Albany Conglomerate. The Albany Conglomerate comprises a well-cemented mixture of hard pebbles, cobbles and boulders of igneous and metamorphic derivation in lenticular beds. A number of tunnelling projects are planned for the near future in Auckland. Recent experience has shown that the variable features associated with the Albany Conglomerate can make selecting appropriate construction methods very challenging. This paper explores the engineering geological and sedimentological features of the Albany Conglomerate with respect to other conglomerates within the Waitemata Group and the potential implications on tunnelling projects in Auckland. Consideration is given to the extent of proposed geotechnical investigations and the production of geotechnical baseline reports.CITATION:Roberts, R C, Hawes, O J, Crossen, S W and Strachan, L J, 2014. Underground construction challenges associated with the Albany Conglomerate in Auckland, in Proceedings 15th Australasian Tunnelling Conference 2014 , pp 195–202 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 17, 2014

By I Douglas, L Allen

Localised indicator kriging was developed following a similar approach used by Marat Abzalov (2006) in his paper titled æLocalised uniform conditioning (LUC): A new approach for direct modelling of small blocksÆ. Abzalov introduced the idea of mapping panel distributions from uniform conditioning onto selective mining unit-sized blocks that were created using ordinary kriging. This concept of remapping panel distributions was applied to multiple indicator kriging histograms.At Newmont a program was developed that made the remapping of MIK histograms to SMU sized blocks extremely efficient and was subsequently tested on several gold deposits. The results have been encouraging as the localised indicator kriging (LIK) method has eliminated many issues that have plagued both ordinary kriging and multiple indicator kriging. Use of localised indicator kriging methodology limits the smearing of high-grade and the over-smoothing of grade that is common and difficult to control in OK but retains the ability for localising grades. LIK also simplifies change-of-support corrections, eliminates un-mineable slivers of low or high-grade when dealing with small tonnages, and allows for the mapping of linear and non-linear estimates into the same block.

Sep 26, 2011

By L L. Kuhar

The AMIRA International P843A Geometallurgical Mapping and Mine Modelling (GeMIII) project is an interdisciplinary research collaboration between 17 global mineral companies and four research organisations aimed at providing support for the emerging industry trend of geometallurgy. The main aim of the project is to develop predictive geometallurgical indices which can be incorporated into a resource block model to maximise the commercial value of an orebody and to minimise the social and environmental impact of mining operations.Researchers at the Parker Centre/CSIRO have been focusing on the development of predictive hydrometallurgical indices for the GeMIII project via rapid, small-scale, cost-effective tests and protocols for comparative ranking of attributes relevant to leach performance. The focus of the small-scale leach tests has been to determine the leach index (relative indication of leach performance), recovery, impurity deportment, reagent consumption, effect of size/degree of liberation and mineralogy of samples for their relative ranking. Predictive tests for heap leach hydrology (related to agglomerate characteristics) and slurry rheological behaviour are also being developed.

Sep 5, 2011

By J McCluskey, N Barros

"Long-term strategic planning at BHP Billiton’s Western Australia Iron Ore business aims for sustainable value maximisation of its large, long-life, low-cost, expandable mineral inventory and supply chain infrastructure. While mine plans are key components of this value equation, this objective requires a whole-of-business approach through comprehensive consideration and optimisation of the full value chain. Only through a system view do we believe that the value proposition of a set of plans is truly optimised.The fundamental considerations include: mineral inventory information, given its intrinsic uncertainty and risk/knowledge horizon a marketing view of future quality premium/discount based on overall market quality load whole of supply chain optimisation on a throughput accounting basis alternative sequences of capital decisions closure costs with significant magnitude of total movement requiring optimisation as part of the plan. In addition, the plan provides a view of acceptable uncertainty levels at different times in the future.BHP Billiton Iron Ore uses a structured Life of Asset planning process that supports the business with the optimisation of its maximum value proposition through a non-deterministic scenario-based optimisation approach on an annual basis. This is a key input to each year’s medium-term plans and budgets, including activities identified through a value of information approach that resolve the key uncertainties and steadily improve confidence in the plan.CITATION:McCluskey, J and Barros, N, 2014. Life of asset planning, uncertainty and value optimisation of the iron ore business – from exploration, to market, to closure, in Proceedings Orebody Modelling and Strategic Mine Planning Symposium 2014, pp 33–40 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Nov 24, 2014

By M Pernechele, U König

Most of the operating steelmaking capacity currently relies on conventional, coal-based steelmaking processes. Currently, direct reduced iron (DRI) is only produced in regions where energy is available at low cost. To align with net-zero emissions goals, steelmaking capacity must transition to loweremissions steelmaking technology. Direct reduction of iron ore will get one of the preferred methods in the future due to its high technology readiness. New reduction technologies include hydrogenbased direct reduction processes. To ensure optimal efficiency during DRI production and to cope with newly developed technologies, processes need to be monitored more frequently and accurate. Traditionally quality control of raw materials and DRI has relied on time consuming physical testing, wet chemistry or the analysis of the elemental composition. The mineralogy of DRI that defines its properties is not frequently monitored. Process monitoring and quality control of DRI is possible by using modern X-ray diffraction (XRD) methods. In addition to the metallic iron content (Femet), metallisation (Metn) and the total carbon content (Ctot), XRD analysis also identifies the overall mineralogical phase composition. This allows additional information about the reduction process and enables fast counteractions on changing raw material mixtures. The benefits of the quantitative determination of the phase composition and the calculation of process critical parameters to produce DRI will be demonstrated with a case study

Sep 18, 2023

By C Zhang, I Canbulat, G Fan, D Zhang, C Wang

A clear understanding of the intensity of coal and rock burst is the basis for future research on burst mechanism and control. There has been a wide variety in the description of coal and rock burst damage at different countries using multi-methods, which makes the common understanding even more challenging. Therefore, this paper presents a broad review on the quantifications of intensity of coal and rock burst and seismic risk around the world, considering critical factors including seismic energy, magnitude, peak particle velocity and ejection velocity. It is found that the seismic energy of coal and rock burst can widely range from 0.002 MJ to 60000 MJ, with equivalent Richter magnitude from -1 to 4. The daily seismic energies can be used for seismic risk potential assessment, with energy levels from 0.1 KJ to 10 MJ, which is much lower than the burst sources. The magnitude of the seismic events can be also estimated based on the weight of damaged coal mass and human senses of vibration and sound. For the seismic intensity represented by peak particle velocity (ppv), it keeps constant within fault radius and attenuates with a speed of 1/r4 and 1/r in near and far field respectively, thus it is possible for a small seismic event to induce considerable ppv causing severe damage if the epicentral distance is small enough. There has not been a strong correlation between the ejection velocity and ppv, as seismic energy is only one of the energy sources that contribute to the kinetic energy of burst damage. CITATION:Wang, C, Zhang, C, Canbulat, I, Zhang, D and Fan, G, 2018. Intensity quantification of coal and rock burst risk – a review, in Proceedings The Fourth Australasian Ground Control in Mining Conference (AusRock), pp 223–233 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 30, 2018

With increasing depth of mining, geotech nical factors assume increasing importance in the design and operation of open pit coal mines. Dragline strip mines are particularly sensitive to stability conditions since the draoline is a relatively inflexible machine, particularly in relation to its limited dump- ing radius for overburden disposal. Geotechnical factors relevant to strip mine design include: 1. spoil pile stability 2. wall stability 3. floor stability 4. excavation characteristics 5. groundwater conditions A basic geotechnical investigation pro- gram for new mine feasibility studies is described. This includes: 1. terrain evaluation 2. geotechnical drilling and logging 3. geophysical logging 4. materials testing 5. seismic refraction traversing 6. groundwater studies Such a program will give an overall geotech- nical assessment of the site and highlight any areas which may require further, more detailed Investigations

Jan 1, 1981

By B Maybee, L Fava, D Millar

In the context of a case study for an underground gold mine, the value generated by a schedule optimisation tool (SOT) is assessed. SOT is a software tool for underground mine planning that maximises the net present value (NPV) of a development and production schedule. A baseline study measures the NPV of a schedule generated by SOT from a sequence prepared by the site mine planners. Operational resource constraints and precedence constraints are adhered to by the schedule and NPV is evaluated with a financial model including revenues, costs and discount rate, as specified by the mine planner.The case study has several facets in addition to the baselining component. Scenarios were conducted that examined the degree of constraint on operational resources, the projected gold price and unit costs. Life-of-mine schedules subject to optimisation using SOT allowed for equitable comparisons.Haulage was identified as a dominant constraint for the mine. It was one of six operational resources that were used to constrain the optimisation of the mine schedule, with alternative levels for some of these constraints being identified so that their effects on the NPV could be studied. Alternative price projections for gold and different cost projections were identified and their effects on the optimised schedule examined. Price and cost scenarios that brought additional economic material into the schedule at various times in the mine life were considered in comparison to a scenario that assumed no additional economic material would become available.This case study illustrated that the use of a schedule optimisation tool to optimise mine schedules provides mine planners with an ability to perform a wide variety of analyses in a relatively short period of time. Such tools thereby support strategic decision-making that can add significant value to an orebody.The case study demonstrates that by fixing the set of development and production activities to be carried out before optimising the life-of-mine schedule, the mine planners can inadvertently set up a situation where the NPV would be progressively eroded in the last several years of the mine life. This clearly illustrates the need for schedule optimisation to be integrated with life-of-mine planning.CITATION:Fava, L, Maybee, B and Millar, D, 2012. Decision support for an underground gold mining operation - A case study using the schedule optimisation tool, in Proceedings Project Evaluation 2012 , pp 41-48 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 24, 2012

By A Liu, X Wang, W Peng, Q Zhang

Pulp rheology plays a critical role in fine mineral flotation. Yield stress and apparent viscosity are two important rheological parameters affecting mineral flotation recovery. In this paper, the concept of pulp rheology and its measuring method are presented. The main factors, such as particle size, pulp concentration, mineral types, pulp temperature, inorganic salts, that affect the pulp rheology are systematically reviewed, and then followed by the discussion of the relationship between pulp rheological properties and flotation performance. Generally, high pulp apparent viscosity and yield stress values have been found to have an adverse effect on flotation recovery. In addition, due to the hetero-coagulation between the valuable mineral and gangue mineral, the pulp of mixed ore shows higher viscosity than that of the single mineral slurry. This paper is expected to provide some references for the efficient upgrading of low-grade and complex ores from the perspective of pulp rheology.

Aug 24, 2022

By A Fern, A Hawkes, o, W Smith, K Mee

Serious Injury and Fatality (SIF) prevention remains a priority focus within high-risk industries sector. A major mining operation sought to strengthen their approach to the management of high-risk activities through an in-depth review of all historical incidents that had serious injury or fatality potential (SIFp) events (sometimes known as hi-potential events). The analysis found that the organisation invested a disproportionate level of resources, time and effort on low consequence incidents with a high proportion of SIFp incidents going under the radar. It was found that 76 per cent of SIFp incidents were rated in moderate or lower risk categories and conversely, almost half of those incidents with a ‘serious risk’ rating had little or no potential for a serious outcome. As a result of this project, the operation engaged in a renewed focus on critical risk management and enhanced its operating cadence in critical risk for the workforce. This included bow tie analysis, an update to critical risk standards and increased workforce engagement in the use of critical control verifications in the field. Data analytics with lead and lag indicators continue to provide senior leadership team and risk owners with an understanding of exposure for SIFp and control effectiveness. The audience will take away learnings from a real-world case study that provides data-driven insights of the human, local and organisational factors contributing to incidents with SIF potential. In addition, participants will understand the steps taken to categorise and analyse this incident data and the initiatives currently being implemented by the organisation as a result.

Apr 16, 2024

By S Lakemond, L I. Ku, J Vaughan

Conventional processing of poly-metallic gold containing flotation concentrates are challenging for a number of reasons. One reason is that substantial copper and zinc in the cyanide leach solution compete with gold and silver for carbon adsorption sites. In this study, metal-cyanide adsorption kinetics and equilibrium are measured on three samples of coconut derived activated carbon and one sample of synthetic carbon. Loading selectivity was confirmed to be in the order gold>silver>copper>zinc for all carbon samples. The synthetic carbon tested showed promising results in terms of loading kinetics and capacity for precious metals.CITATION:Lakemond, S, Ku, L I and Vaughan, J, 2013. Effect of carbon type on adsorption of Cu, Zn, Ag and Au from mixed cyanide solution, in Proceedings World Gold 2013 , pp 411-418 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 26, 2013

The initially cautious approach taken towards ground support and reinforcement at the Porgera Underground Gold Mine in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea has evolved rapidly in the two years since stoping commenced. The confidence to continue the evolution process has grown from an increasing knowledge of mining conditions as stoping has progressed, to the extent that reinforcement requirements have decreased by 50 to 75 per cent depending on local circumstances. Changes to mining practices have significantly assisted and influenced this process.Empirical observations of ground behaviour, assisted by a deliberately selective extensometer monitoring program, provided the stimulus for early changes to ground support and reinforcement practices. Further optimisation of the ground support and reinforcement effort is being pursued through an active monitoring, measuring and analysis program. Ultimately, situation rather than site specific design will ensure continuing high quality ground support and reinforcement installations. However, local structural and lithological factors will continue to become more critical as the optimum position is reached.

Jan 1, 1993

By M S. Tuohy

Since the independent review of fatal accidents in the mining industry carried out by Dr Sean Brady (the ‘Brady Review’), High Reliability Organisations (HROs) and their operating principles have been discussed across the Queensland mining sector. HROs are organisations said to consistently avoid serious failures, reliably delivering their organisational objectives despite operating in environments characterised by high levels of inherent risk and/or operational complexity. HRO concepts have previously found application in other similarly hazardous industries to mining. However, as Hopkins (2009) pointed out, HROs ‘are very elusive creatures that inhabit the realm of theory more than the real world’. The Queensland Resources Council (QRC) with support from the Commissioner for Resources Safety and Health initiated a review of how HRO principles can be translated to the mining industry. The review was conducted by Noetic, an Australian management consulting company that specialises in hazardous industries, including mining and metals, and has prior experience applying HRO theory.

May 5, 2022

By H Stedman

Integrating exploration and operational blastholes into one database significantly enhances geological modelling. Benefits include: improved coal predictions, stronger interpretation of structurally complex areas, detailed mapping of heat affected coal aureoles and additional roof accuracy for blast designs that deliver better coal protection.CITATION:Stedman, H, 2014. Integrating blastholes into exploration data to improve coal recovery and modelling, in Proceedings Ninth International Mining Geology Conference 2014 , pp 237–242 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 18, 2014

By A Millar, B Wraith

Process plants are characterised by variability of performance over a wide range of time-scales; reflected in fluctuations in metal recovery, concentrate grade, plant throughput and reagent costs. In turn, these fluctuations impact financial metrics such as operating costs and revenue. The primary cause of plant variability is variation in the physical, lithological and mineralogical characteristics of the ore fed to the plant. The variability of the ore is driven by the intrinsic heterogeneity of the geology and mineralogy of the orebody, the mining method and mine production plan, the capacity to stockpile and blend, as well as the plant flow sheet and the level of plant automation. Whilst the impact of ore variability on process plants is universally recognised, it is rarely quantified in financial terms. Consequently, opportunities to reduce its impact are often overlooked due to the lack of a basis for a quantifiable cost-benefit analysis to justify improvement initiatives. This paper will present case studies using production data from the Renison tin concentrator and a zinc concentrator. These case studies demonstrate that as the standard deviation of plant head grade increases (as a proxy for ore variability), plant metal recovery subsequently reduces. The metal recovery is then converted into plant revenue losses, to quantify the economic impact of ore variability. The Renison case study demonstrated that whilst a very rare occurrence, revenue losses were as high as 34 per cent (relative to the baseline) when standard deviation was at its highest. The zinc concentrator case study demonstrated that revenue losses were as high as 6 per cent (relative to the baseline) when standard deviation was at its highest. Options are available for reducing and managing ore variability in the process plant. These options include changing mining practices so that the ore is fed to the plant with less variability, more advanced process plant control systems and the use of predictive geometallurgical models.

Aug 24, 2022

By Ramani R. V

In this paper, a comparative performance evaluation of geostatistical, spectral, and fractal methods is made for short-scale variability prediction. The algorithms compared are: sequential Gaussian simulation method; a random fractal algorithm based on the generalised stochastic subdivision method; and a spectral simulation approach adopted for direct multi-dimensional simulation. The data for this study have been obtained from a mined out coal property. As this property was being mined, a 7315 m by 7315 m (24000 ft by 24000 ft) coal block was extensively sampled at an approximate spacing of 107 m (350 ft) and the 60-ton samples were analysed for sulphur in the 1.50 float gravity fraction. This data set is used here with the three methods to generate the simulated realisations, which are analysed for semivariogram reproduction and for simulation errors. Although all three methods converge to the true semivariogram in an average sense, the coefficient of variation of the average semivariogram for the Fourier integral method is minimum. The realisations generated by the sequential Gaussian method have minimum mean simulation error. The choice of a simulation method based on variability reproduction and simulation errors remains difficult.

Jan 1, 1995