Search Documents

By Donald L. Katz, Leo B. Bicher

A correlation is presented for predicting the viscosities of light paraffin hydrocarbon mixtures such as natural gases for temperatures from o° to 4o0°F. and for pressures fro1 atmospheric to I0,000 lb. per sq. in. The correlation is based on the viscosity data for the methane-propane system and requires only a knowledge of the molecular weight of the naturaI gas. The viscosities of natural gases reported in the literature up to 2500 lb. were reproduced by the correlation with an average deviation of 5.8 per cent. Introduction The viscosity of a natural gas is required whenever calculations are made of the pressure drop that occurs while the gas flows through pipes or porous media. Methods of predicting the viscosities of gases at the present operating pressures are not available. This paper presents a simple method of predicting the viscosity of a natural gas in the single-phase region from its molecular weight, temperature, and pressure. Viscosity oF Methane-propane Mixtures The viscosity of methane, propane, and four of their binary mixtures, 20,40, 60, and 80 mol per cent, have been determined for pressures from 400 to 5000 lb. per sq. in. and temperatures from 77" to 437 F., with an experimental accuracy of 3.2 per cent.2 The apparatus used in the investigation was a modification of that employed in previous studiesaJ4 on the viscosity of normal paraffin hydrocarbons. It consists of a viscosimeter of the rolling-ball, inclined-tube type,5>k7 with auxiliary equipment for making up and charging binary mixtures into the viscosimeter.~ The viscosity data on the methane-propane mixtures have been plotted as a function of molecular weight with lines of constant pressure, charts of constant temperature in Figs. I to 3. These charts are extrapolated at temperatures below 77°F. and at pressures above 5000 lb. per sq. inch. Prediction OF Viscosity from Molecular Weight of a NaturaI. Gas At atmospheric pressure the viscosity of light hydrocarbon gases increased with increased temperature, contrary to the change of viscosity of liquids with temperature. The atmospheric viscosities of the normal paraffin hydrocarbons have been determincd by several investiga-tors 3,4,9,10,12,15,16,17,19 and are plotted in Fig. 4 as a function of molecular weight, with extrapolation to 896'F. and to 220 molecular weight. Data for isopentane and normal pentane show less than 2 per cent difference in viscosity, indicating that Fig. 4 can be used for isomeric parafin hydrocarbons with an accuracy of approximately 2 per cent. Trautz and Sorg'7 determined the atmospheric viscosities 01 methane-propane mixtures and showed that they are proportional to the molecular weight. The viscosities of these mixtures

Jan 1, 1944

By Leo B. Bicher, Donald L. Katz

A correlation is presented for predicting the viscosities of light paraffin hydrocarbon mixtures such as natural gases for temperatures from o° to 4o0°F. and for pressures fro1 atmospheric to I0,000 lb. per sq. in. The correlation is based on the viscosity data for the methane-propane system and requires only a knowledge of the molecular weight of the naturaI gas. The viscosities of natural gases reported in the literature up to 2500 lb. were reproduced by the correlation with an average deviation of 5.8 per cent. Introduction The viscosity of a natural gas is required whenever calculations are made of the pressure drop that occurs while the gas flows through pipes or porous media. Methods of predicting the viscosities of gases at the present operating pressures are not available. This paper presents a simple method of predicting the viscosity of a natural gas in the single-phase region from its molecular weight, temperature, and pressure. Viscosity oF Methane-propane Mixtures The viscosity of methane, propane, and four of their binary mixtures, 20,40, 60, and 80 mol per cent, have been determined for pressures from 400 to 5000 lb. per sq. in. and temperatures from 77" to 437 F., with an experimental accuracy of 3.2 per cent.2 The apparatus used in the investigation was a modification of that employed in previous studiesaJ4 on the viscosity of normal paraffin hydrocarbons. It consists of a viscosimeter of the rolling-ball, inclined-tube type,5>k7 with auxiliary equipment for making up and charging binary mixtures into the viscosimeter.~ The viscosity data on the methane-propane mixtures have been plotted as a function of molecular weight with lines of constant pressure, charts of constant temperature in Figs. I to 3. These charts are extrapolated at temperatures below 77°F. and at pressures above 5000 lb. per sq. inch. Prediction OF Viscosity from Molecular Weight of a NaturaI. Gas At atmospheric pressure the viscosity of light hydrocarbon gases increased with increased temperature, contrary to the change of viscosity of liquids with temperature. The atmospheric viscosities of the normal paraffin hydrocarbons have been determincd by several investiga-tors 3,4,9,10,12,15,16,17,19 and are plotted in Fig. 4 as a function of molecular weight, with extrapolation to 896'F. and to 220 molecular weight. Data for isopentane and normal pentane show less than 2 per cent difference in viscosity, indicating that Fig. 4 can be used for isomeric parafin hydrocarbons with an accuracy of approximately 2 per cent. Trautz and Sorg'7 determined the atmospheric viscosities 01 methane-propane mixtures and showed that they are proportional to the molecular weight. The viscosities of these mixtures

Jan 1, 1944

Granduc lies near the Alaskan border in British Columbia, about 600 miles (960 km) north of Vancouver. Prospecting in the area must take place in the short summer months of fog and rain because the winter is bitter cold, with snowfall up to 960 inches (24.4 m) accompanied by avalanches. Despite these difficulties, the mineral ized area was discovered in the 1920's. By 1956, Newmont Mining Corporation had developed mineable ore reserves estimated at 32,500,000 tons of 1.93% copper. Newmont and ASARCO, in a joint venture, then began development of the ore body, which was partially covered by glaciers. It was apparent a concentrator could not be built at the mine site where overland access was impossible due to the weather conditions and the terrain. Years of engineering studies of all possible access routes finally dictated the driving of an 11 mi long (17.6 km) tunnel passing under three glaciers and three mountain ranges to the nearest feasible concentrator site at Tide Lake. Even then, a mountain road subject to an average snowfall of 800 in. (20. 3 m) had to be built 32 mi (51 krn) from the concentrator through Alaska to Stewart, British Columbia, the nearest port. At Stewart, which is located at the head of a fjord 120 mi (192 krn) from the Pacific Odean, a fully equipped marine terminal was built. The tunnel, the lifeline between mine and mill, was to be driven from both ends; however, in 1965, an avalanche occurred at the Leduc portal, killing 26 crew members and wrecking much of the camp. The tunnel was then driven from one heading adjacent to the concentrator site at Tide Lake, a distance of 53,744 ft (16,381 m) to a point under the ore body. The remote location, type of terrain, and bad weather made supply of crews, equipment, and construction materials difficult; but in spite of these extremely adverse conditions, the tunnel crews set many world records. Mineralization throughout the ore zone is generally uniform in grade and composition and is primarily chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite associated with pyrite. Mining is mainly by sublevel caving. After blasting, rubber-tired load-and-haul equipment moves from level to level by means of an internal connecting ramp system on a 15% slope. At the gathering haulage level, 15-ton bottom-dump cars deliver the ore to a 600-ton pocket equipped with a Hudson "Rock-Flo" dump. The bottom of the ore pocket forms the feed chute to the primary

Jan 1, 1978

By H. O. Hoffman, C. D. Demond

There are two methods of determining the fusibility or refractoriness of fire-clays, the theoretical and the experimental. In the former, conclusions are drawn from the chemical composition; in the latter, from the changes which the clay undergoes when subjeoted to intense heat. It is well to use both methods, beginning with the actual heat-test and explaining the results obtained from this by the help of the chemical analysis. In discussing the subject, however, it is better to reverse this order. I. The Theoretical Method.* Leaving out the hygroscopic and combined waters and any organic matter, as not directly affecting the fire-resisting property, the refractory constituents of fire-clay are alumina and silica, and the fluxing constituents magnesia, lime, soda, potash and ferric oxide. According to Bischof,† alumina is the least fusible component, and silica follows close upon it. If, however, a mixture of the two be heated, it will be found that its melting-point is much lower than that of alumina, as a silicate will then have been formed. The way in which silica affects the refractoriness of alumina has been strikingly presented by Seger 1 in a diagram reproduced in Fig. 1. The abscissæ represent the melting-points of Seger cones Nos. 26 to 36 (see p. 55); the ordinates, the relative amounts of alumina and

Jan 1, 1895

By AIME AIME

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.-The semi-annual meeting of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers will be held in Detroit, Mich., June 23-26. A session will be devoted to hoisting- and conveying-machinery; and many other subjects will be treated in professional papers, among which are . Clutches (with special reference to automobile clutches); The Thermal Properties of Superheated Steam; The Horse-Power, Friction-Losses, and Efficiency of Gas- and Oil-Engines; A Journal-Friction Measuring-Machine; A Simple Method of Checking Conical Pistons for Stress, and The By-Product Coke-Oven. The usual receptions will be held and excursions will be made to manufacturing plants, the slip-building yards, and various points of interest in and around Detroit. Among the excursions' planned is one to the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. The Gas-Power Section of the Society will hold a session, and the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education and the Society of Automobile Engineers will hold meet-

Jan 5, 1908

By W. Bradley, R. G. Hall

This paper will attempt to show how a metallurgical problem at one California quicksilver mine was solved, and how the solution was applied successfully at another mine. The pronouns "we" and "our," as used below, refer '0 the Bradley 'lining Co. of San Francisco. The term "concurrent firing" for the purpose of this paper can be defined as feeding and firing a a kiln at the same end—that is, of course, the upper end' This is as opposed to "countercurrent firing," the orthodox method, in which a kiln is fed at the upper and fired at the lower end. The terms "quicksilver" and "mercury" are used interchangeably. Early References The earliest work on nonferrous metallurgy, we believe, was The Pirotechnia of Vannocio Biringuccio,l its first edition having been printed in Italy in 1540. Quoting from its chapter entitled "Concerning Quicksilver and Its Ore": Quicksilver ... is one of the gods and has divine strength in itself, and also, to the annoyance of the alchemists, it is winged. Hence, when it sees that it is in gravest danger, it loosens itself from . . . every bond . . . and fies away into the heavens, escaping from the hands of those who crucify it. Almost laughing, it leaves all its adversaries mocked and scorned, with their phials and filters empty . . . How thorough a job, under certain conditions, it can do of mocking its adversaries and leaving their phials and filters empty, was found out four centuries later at the Sulphur Bank mine, on the east shore of Clear Lake, in Lake county, California, The other mine mentioned in the title is the Reed, in Yolo County, California, 35 miles by road southeast of Sulphur Bank, Reed and Sulphur Bank ranked respectively Nth and seventh in U. S. production in 1943. The earliest direct reference we can find to furnacing troubles at these mines was by Thomas Egleston in 1890.2 Speaking of Sulphur Bank, Egleston says: of there is more sulphur than cinnabar in the ore, which is a detriment to both . . . making the sulphur impure, and rendering the cinnabar difficult to work on account of the soot. In some of the early . . . furnaces the accumulation of soot from the excess of sulphur has been known to penetrate as far as the fan blower at the end of the . . . condensers, and completely prevent its revolution. In order to get rid of the inconvenience of this accumulation . . . , as well as to get a commercial value from the sulphur, it (the sulphur) is now separated by steam and sold. It is claimed that the sulphur alone pays all the expenses of ... the mine. The mine was first worked for sulphur, and the cinnabar it contained was considered to be an inconvenience, and was carefully picked out and thrown away, as its richness and value were not

Jan 1, 1949

By W. H. Hough, P. B. Leavenworth

Development in the Upper Texas Gulf Coast during 1943 resulted in the discovery of 11 new fields as compared with 12 discovered in the same area during I942. Of the 11 new fields, eight are classed as oil and/or condensate and three as gas fields. In addition to the new discoveries, several more or less important new horizons and extensions were encountered in some of the older fields, as noted in the text under the heading "New Pays and Extensions.'' Drilling During the year, 418 wells were drilled, as compared with 356 drilled during 1942. Of these, 323 were field wells, of which 188 produced oil, 21 were gas wells and 114 were dry holes. The remaining 95 viere wildcats, 12 of which produced oil, 4 produced gas and 79 dry holes. Distribution of themwildcats with respect to the various trends may be summarized as follows: over the 91,340,492 bbl. produced in the same area during 1942. The production statistics in the text and the accompanying tables include condensate or distillate as oil production, because many Gulf Coast fields produce oils with a wide variation of specific gravities, all of which are commingled in pipe lines. Table 3 shows by counties all of the drilling and production" data applicable to this particular area. Outstanding Fields of 1943 The Upper Texas Gulf Coast covered in this report has 178 more or less active oil and gas fields, including the 1943 discoveries. Of these Table 4 lists those that were most important from the standpoint of production. Each of these fields pro duced in excess of one million barrels of oil during 1943. Some of the interesting facts to be noted from this list of some 26 oil fields are: (I) four of the fields— namely, Conroe, Hastings, Friendswood and Thompson—each produced more than 10 million barrels during 1943, whcrcas Conroe and Hastings were the only fields that produced 10 million barrels during 1942; (2) some of the older fields (discovered prior to 1920), such as Barbers Hill, West Columbia, and Hull, are still producing in excess of one million barrels annually; (3) some of the fields more than doubled their 1942 production—e.g., Anahuac and Friendswood. The large increase in production in practically all instances is the result of increased allowables from wells drilled prior to 1943 and

Jan 1, 1944

By W. H. Hough, P. B. Leavenworth

Development in the Upper Texas Gulf Coast during 1943 resulted in the discovery of 11 new fields as compared with 12 discovered in the same area during I942. Of the 11 new fields, eight are classed as oil and/or condensate and three as gas fields. In addition to the new discoveries, several more or less important new horizons and extensions were encountered in some of the older fields, as noted in the text under the heading "New Pays and Extensions.'' Drilling During the year, 418 wells were drilled, as compared with 356 drilled during 1942. Of these, 323 were field wells, of which 188 produced oil, 21 were gas wells and 114 were dry holes. The remaining 95 viere wildcats, 12 of which produced oil, 4 produced gas and 79 dry holes. Distribution of themwildcats with respect to the various trends may be summarized as follows: over the 91,340,492 bbl. produced in the same area during 1942. The production statistics in the text and the accompanying tables include condensate or distillate as oil production, because many Gulf Coast fields produce oils with a wide variation of specific gravities, all of which are commingled in pipe lines. Table 3 shows by counties all of the drilling and production" data applicable to this particular area. Outstanding Fields of 1943 The Upper Texas Gulf Coast covered in this report has 178 more or less active oil and gas fields, including the 1943 discoveries. Of these Table 4 lists those that were most important from the standpoint of production. Each of these fields pro duced in excess of one million barrels of oil during 1943. Some of the interesting facts to be noted from this list of some 26 oil fields are: (I) four of the fields— namely, Conroe, Hastings, Friendswood and Thompson—each produced more than 10 million barrels during 1943, whcrcas Conroe and Hastings were the only fields that produced 10 million barrels during 1942; (2) some of the older fields (discovered prior to 1920), such as Barbers Hill, West Columbia, and Hull, are still producing in excess of one million barrels annually; (3) some of the fields more than doubled their 1942 production—e.g., Anahuac and Friendswood. The large increase in production in practically all instances is the result of increased allowables from wells drilled prior to 1943 and

Jan 1, 1944

No. 264. A long established company operating steel and iron foundries, machine and forge shops, whose varied products are sold to the Government, railroads, mining and contracting industries, etc., has, openings in both manufacturing and selling departments for men with technical education and experience who are not subject to military call. State full particulars, kind of position preferred and salary expected. No. 265. Young man wanted, technical graduate preferred, to superintend construction f a small charcoal blast furnace. Man with blast-furnace experience preferred. For the right kind of man this is, not only a permanent job but an opportunity. In writing, give full particulars as to age, education, experience, salary wanted, etc. No. 26.6. An important copper mining and smelting company in Arizona needs two or three metallurgical chemists, at salaries. ranging front $150 to $175 per month. No. 267. A consulting mining engineer needs two superintendents for developing chrome deposits near Philadelphia; and another technical man for other engineering work in the same vicinity. No. 268. An iron-mining company, in New York State needs a mining engineer with knowledge of geology and acquaintance with construction work; A married man, with about 10 years' engineering experience preferred.

Jan 2, 1918

By Franklin H. Allison

The influence of cobalt and nickel on the properties of steel might be readily expected to be very similar. The two elements occupy close and somewhat unusual positions in the periodic table, their chemical behavior and compounds are so completely analogous and their various physical properties, including the ferro-magnetic characteristic, show such 3 remarkable correspondence, that there is no doubt of a strong resemblance existing between these two metals. However, the variety of properties that are obtained from steel is due largely to the fact that the element iron possesses allotropic forms. Alloying elements that affect these allot ropic forms, or alter the nature of the allotropic changes, exert a profound influence on the resulting steel. In the case of nickel and cobalt, although these elements are very similar chemically and physically, it is found that they differ distinctly in their individual effects on the critical points of iron. Both nickel and cobalt form a series of homogeneous solid solutions with iron at temperatures above 1500" F. The difference in their behavior does not occur until changes begin to take place in the solid state below this temperature. An inspection of the respective thermal equilibrium diagrams at the lower temperatures makes the opposite effects of nickel and cobalt clearly evident. Effect of Nickel and Cobalt in Binary Alloys with Iron The binary diagram of iron-nickel has been investigated by a number of workers. The lower temperature portion in Fig. 1 is reconstructed from the data of D. and H, Hanson.1 The diagram of iron-cobalt, shown in Fig. 2, is taken from the work of Ruer and Kaneko.2 Masumoto3 has recently discovered a lower critical point in cobalt and this has been added to the diagram. In both diagrams the space lattice structures as determined by Andrews4 have been included. It is interesting to note

Jan 1, 1927

By Lawrence K. Nordell

This paper reviews practices used In the selection and sizing of belt conveyors and stacker systems commonly used in crushing and grinding plant facilities. Historical and modern methods of sizing this equipment are presented. The new methods Include: 1) probability theory applications for establishing component reliability, 2) "Monte Carlo" simulation techniques used in evaluating alternative system designs and in establishing service factors and corresponding availability Indices of each system, 3) quantifying the system and component operating characteristics using computer assisted modeling tools simulating rigid body and elasto-mechanic behavior for starting and stopping large and/or complex belt conveyors.

Jan 1, 1982

By A. H. Redfield

BITUMENS have been defined by Abraham1 as substances of variable color, hardness, and volatility; composed principally of 'saturated hydrocarbons, substantially free from oxygenated bodies, sometimes associated with mineral matter; the nonmineral constituents being fusible and largely soluble in carbon disulphide. The principal bituminous substances other than petroleums known to commerce are: (1) native asphaltites, such as gilsonite, grahamite, and glance pitch, distinguished by their hardness and relatively high fusing point; (2) native asphaltic pyrobitumens, such as wurtzilite, distinguished by their infusibility and comparative insolubility in carbon disulphide; (3) mineral waxes, such as ozokerite, distinguished by their high content of crystallizable paraffins; (4) native asphalts, containing varying amouqts of mineral matter, distinguished by the comparative absence of crystallizable paraffins; and (5) bituminous residues obtained from the distillation of petroleum. GILSONITE Gilsonite, a black native asphaltite 98 to 99.9 pct pure, characterized by a hardness of 2 (Mohs), a specific gravity of 1.01 to 1.10, and melting point of 230° to 400°F (K and S), is mined commercially only in northeastern Utah. It occurs in parallel, almost vertical veins, from a few inches to 18 ft wide and 8 to 30 miles long, that cut across the Tertiary limestone and shale of the broad Uinta Basin. The bitumen is believed to have been distilled by heat from oily material in the underlying Green River shale. At the Rainbow mine of the American Gilsonite CO.,† the gilsonite, formerly extracted in an opencut by a system of slopes and benches, is now mined by shafts and horizontal drifts. Little timbering is required. The mining methods of the Raven Mining Co., Chicago, and of the American Asphalt Association and the Utah Gilsonite Co., both of

Jan 1, 1949

By A. H. Bell

Continued low prices and restricted markets for crude oil discouraged drilling activity in Illinois oil fields during 1933. Only 36 wells were completed in the state, the smallest number since 1904, and of these the majority were scattered wildcat wells, only 10 having been drilled in producing fields (Table 2). Production was curtailed approximately 40 per cent for the first half of the year. During July, August, and the early part of September there was no restriction on production. On Sept. 8, under the "code of fair competition for the petroleum industry," the quota of allowable production for Illinois was fixed at 12,000 bbl. per day. The state's production in 1933 was 9 per cent less than in 1932. What it would have been had there been no curtailment of production and if economic conditions had permitted a normal amount of cleaning out and repairs to wells, it is not possible to estimate, but it would no doubt have been considerably more than the actual figure. No new pools or new producing horizons were discovered in 1933, but the deepening of a Robinson sand well in Crawford County to the McClosky "sand" horizon (St. Genevieve limestone of the Lower Mississippian) resulted in a production of 3 bbl. per day (Fred Patchel, Savilla Shipman No. 5, NE. 1/4, SW. 1/4, sec. 26, T.6N., R.l3W., deepened from 1122 to 1388 ft., to be tested to the McClosky horizon, and, owing to the rapid variations in porosity within short distances, as shown in the Lawrence County field to the south, one test may not be considered as proving or condemning any large area. The average price of Illinois crude oil in 1933, calculated from the posted prices as published in the Oil and Gas Journal and Oil Weekly, was $0.862 per barrel. This compares with a calculated average price of $1.032 in 1932 and 0.852 in 1931. The total value of Illinois crude oil produced in 1933 obtained by multiplying the average price (0.862) by the total production (4,227,000 bbl.) was $3,643,674. Of the 26 wildcat wells drilled in 1933, only one was drilled on known favorable structure. This was the Walmar Oil Company's William Pepple well No. 1, sec. 12, T.4N., R.12W., Hancock County, which tested

Jan 1, 1934

By G. R. Leverant, M. Gell

The high- and low-cycle fatigue poperties of MAR-M200 directionally -solidified into columnar-grained and single crystal forms were determined at 1400" and 1700°F. These results were compared with the corresponding properties of conventionally -cast MAR-M200. The low-cycle fatigue lives of the columnar-grained and single crystal materials were similar at both temperatures and were one to two orders of magnitude greater than those of conventionally-cast material. The variations in the fatigue lives among the three forms of MAR-M200 were related to the more rapid rate of intergranular muck propagation compared to that of transgranular propagation. In conventionally-cast MAR-M200, cracks were initiated in grain boundaries and crack popagation occurred rapidly along an almost continuous grain boundary path. In the columnar-grained material, crack initiation occurred on short transverse segments of grain boundaries, but crack propagation was transgranular. The fatigue lives of columnar-grained and single crystal materials were approximately the same because most of the life in both materials was spent in trans-granular propagation. For the directionally -solidified materials, the number of cycles to failure, Nf, can be related to the total strain range, , by: heT = K where n and K are 0.16 and 0.044 at 1400'F and 0.29and 0.098 at 1700, respectively. In addition to intergranular crack initiation in the columnar-grained material, initiation also occurred at we-cracked MC carbides and micropores in both directionally-solidified materials. At 1400°F, fatigue life was reduced with increasing MC carbide size, but at 1700 there was no effect of carbide size. THE creep and stress-rupture properties of conventionally-cast nickel-base superalloys can be greatly improved by directional solidification into either single crystal or columnar-grained forms. The improvement in properties results from a reduction in intergranular cavitation and crack growth in the columnar-grained materials and the complete absence of this fracture mode in the single crystals. This paper describes the effect of grain boundaries on the elevated temperature fatigue properties of the nickel-base superalloy MAR-M200. The effect of cycling frequency on cracking arid fatigue life and the role of MC carbides and micropores on crack initiation are also emphasized. The fatigue properties of columnar-grained and single crystal MAR-M200 at room tem- perature,4,5 and the change in the mode of fatigue crack propagation with temperature6 have recently been described. I) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The material used in this study was the nickel-base superalloy MAR-M200, directionally-solidified into columnar-grained and single crystal forms. The columnar grains were approximately 0.5 mm in diam. The nominal composition of these materials in wt pct was 0.15C, 9Cr, 12.5W, loco, 5A1. 2Ti, lCb, 0.05Zr. 0.015B, bal Ni. They were solutionized for 1 to 4 hr at 2250°F followed by aging at 1600°F for 32 hr. which resulted in 0.2 pct offset yield stresses of 150,000? 144,000, and 95,000 psi at room temperature? 1400°, and 1700°F, respectively. The corresponding elastic moduli parallel to the testing direction were 19.2. 15.0, and 12.5 x 106 psi, respectively. Specimen design, testing procedures and alloy mi-crostructure have been described previously and will only be summarized here. Following the 1600°F aging treatment. MAR-M200 contains an ordered, cuboidal, y' precipitate 0.3 1 on edge, which is coherent with the 1 matrix. The y' precipitate is quite stable; even after testing at 1700°F. the precipitate is only slightly enlarged and its corners somewhat rounded. The alloy also contains a small volume fraction of micropores, and MC carbides. some of which contain preexisting cracks5 formed during casting. These cracks are always parallel to the long dimension of the carbide. Measurement of MC carbide size has been described previously.5 Axial fatigue tests were conducted in air over a wide range of strain amplitudes in both the high - and low-cycle fatigue regions, with specimen lives varying from about 10' to 10' cycles. Low-cycle fatigue (LCF) tests were strain-controlled with strain varied between zero and a maximum tensile value at a frequency of about 2 cpm. High-cycle fatigue (HCF) tests were stress-controlled with the stress varied between 5000 psi and a maximum tensile value less than the yield stress at a frequency of either 10 cps or 0.033 cps (2 cpm). The temperature in the gage section was controlled to 52°F. Specimen axes were within 5 deg of the [001] growth axis of the single crystals and the common [001 ] growth axis of the columnar-grained material. Specimen gage sections were electro polished prior to testing. After the standard heat treatment, three specimens were coated with a typical aluminide coating applied as a slurry. An additional specimen was given the coating heat treatment without actually being coated. In all cases: specimens were reaged at 1600°F for 32 hr after receiving the coating heat treatment at 1975'F for 4 hr.

Jan 1, 1970

By Robert B Sosman

The relative temperature distribution within a coke oven and among the ovens in a battery can be obtained automatically for the operator's guidance by sighting a total-radiation pyrometer on the face of the coke as it is pushed out, and recording the surface temperature. Keeping the instrument clean and keeping its view of the coke unobstructed by smoke and dust are the principal problems. Typical records from three plants are presented in this paper, showing that the temperature patterns are reproducible. Development OF Method The method of coke pyrometry described in this paper was introduced in 1936 by E. A. Lee, then Assistant Superintendent, now Superintendent, of the Coke Plant at Lorain Works, National Tube Co., Lorain, Ohio. At the request of the Coke Committee of the United States Steel Corporation, the Research Laboratory of the Corporation undertook to adapt the method to the somewhat different conditions met with at the Gary Works of the Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation, Gary, Ind., and at the Clairton Works of the same Corporation at Clairton, Pa. This work was done in cooperation with the Leeds and Northrup Co. of Philadelphia and later with the Brown Instrument Co. Division of Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., Philadelphia. We of the Research Laboratory wish to express our appreci- ation of the courtesies extended by Mr. Lee, by A. N. Cole, Superintendent of the Gary coke plant, and by D. P. Finney, Assistant General Superintendent in charge of coke-plant operations at Clairton. We are also indebted to the instrument companies for the loan of a part of the equipment. At Gary and Clairton the instruments were installed and various experiments were made by J. W. Bain, of the Research Laboratory of the United States Steel Corporation. Pyrometry of Coke The coke inside a by-product oven is almost completely inaccessible to pyro-metric instruments. The temperature in the walls can conceivably be measured with thermocouples, but the atmosphere is usually strongly reducing, a condition well known to be destructive to the accuracy of the customary high-temperature couples. In some plants, periodic readings are taken with an optical pyrometer sighted into the top of the combustion flues. This is a useful measure for safety and general control, as it tends to prevent the damage that would result from overheating of the ovens. It does not, however, tell much about the temperature of the coke itself, because of the continually changing gradient in the wall between the coke and the combustion chamber. The best indication of the temperature of the coke itself must therefore be obtained by observation of the product as it is pushed out of the oven. The human eye is very sensitive to variations in brightness of a surface, and particularly to differences in brightness over a continuous hot surface.

Jan 1, 1943

By Robert B. Sosman

The relative temperature distribution within a coke oven and among the ovens in a battery can be obtained automatically for the operator's guidance by sighting a total-radiation pyrometer on the face of the coke as it is pushed out, and recording the surface temperature. Keeping the instrument clean and keeping its view of the coke unobstructed by smoke and dust are the principal problems. Typical records from three plants are presented in this paper, showing that the temperature patterns are reproducible. Development OF Method The method of coke pyrometry described in this paper was introduced in 1936 by E. A. Lee, then Assistant Superintendent, now Superintendent, of the Coke Plant at Lorain Works, National Tube Co., Lorain, Ohio. At the request of the Coke Committee of the United States Steel Corporation, the Research Laboratory of the Corporation undertook to adapt the method to the somewhat different conditions met with at the Gary Works of the Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation, Gary, Ind., and at the Clairton Works of the same Corporation at Clairton, Pa. This work was done in cooperation with the Leeds and Northrup Co. of Philadelphia and later with the Brown Instrument Co. Division of Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., Philadelphia. We of the Research Laboratory wish to express our appreci- ation of the courtesies extended by Mr. Lee, by A. N. Cole, Superintendent of the Gary coke plant, and by D. P. Finney, Assistant General Superintendent in charge of coke-plant operations at Clairton. We are also indebted to the instrument companies for the loan of a part of the equipment. At Gary and Clairton the instruments were installed and various experiments were made by J. W. Bain, of the Research Laboratory of the United States Steel Corporation. Pyrometry of Coke The coke inside a by-product oven is almost completely inaccessible to pyro-metric instruments. The temperature in the walls can conceivably be measured with thermocouples, but the atmosphere is usually strongly reducing, a condition well known to be destructive to the accuracy of the customary high-temperature couples. In some plants, periodic readings are taken with an optical pyrometer sighted into the top of the combustion flues. This is a useful measure for safety and general control, as it tends to prevent the damage that would result from overheating of the ovens. It does not, however, tell much about the temperature of the coke itself, because of the continually changing gradient in the wall between the coke and the combustion chamber. The best indication of the temperature of the coke itself must therefore be obtained by observation of the product as it is pushed out of the oven. The human eye is very sensitive to variations in brightness of a surface, and particularly to differences in brightness over a continuous hot surface.

Jan 1, 1943

[Pumps: oil-well: plunger: essential parts, G26, 130; 74, 828 improved type, 74, 846 leakage, 74, 837 operating cycle, 74, 833 Uren design, G26, 145 sucker-rod failures, G26, 136 sucker-rod stress, 74, 835 sucker rods, 74, 830, 832 tubing, 74, 833 tubing difficulties, G25, 138; 74, 836 Olivite, 73, 337 valve and seats, 74, 832 Punching: Monel metal, 78, 86 nickel, 78, 86 Punjab. See Indian Empire. PUPIN, M. L biography, M26, 113 John Fritz medalist, 1931, M81, 499 recipient of Washington Award, M28, 155 PURDY, R.: Discussions: on Relative Efficiencies of Domestic Fuels in Relation to Their Costs and Their Advantages 108, 353 on Uses on Coal in the Ceramic Industry, 108,389,398]

Jan 1, 1936

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA LOCAL. SECTION Executive Committee SEELEY W. MUDD, Chairman C. COLCOCK JONES, Vice-Chairman FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL, Secretary-Treasurer, 631 Higgins Bldg., Los Angeles, Cal. RALPH ARNOLD A. B. CARPENTER In. order to make the meetings of the, Section more interesting and fruitful, the Executive Committee has formed a sub-committee on programs for. Section meetings, which announces for the coming autumn and winter season, four dinner meetings, at intervals of two months, in which the co-operation of all Section members is urgently. requested. The subjects chosen for discussion at these meetings, with the proposed dates, are as follows: Sept. 28, 1915. Mining Geology of Mojave County, Arizona. Dec. 14, 1915. General Geology and Mining Conditions in Southern California. Feb. 1, 1916. Petroleum, its Geology and Technology. April 4, 1916. General Mining Conditions in. South America. F. J. H.. MERRILL, Secretary.

Jan 10, 1915

By R. B. G. Yeo

The effects of alloy additions on the M, and A, temperatures of an Fe-22.5 pct Ni alloy have been determined. Increasing amounts of titanium, colum-bium, vanadium, and silicon raise and then lower M,while raising A, cmtinuously. Cobalt raises both M, and A,. Aluminum has little effect on Ms but raises A,. Chromium md nickel lower M, and A,. It is proposed that elements raise M, in accordance with their effect on the Ae3 temperature of iron until the lattice becomes stiffened against the shear transformation so that M, is then lowered. An anomaly, first pointed out by Zener,1 arises in steels when the addition of elements, such as molybdenum and tungsten, which raise the Ae3 temperature, also lower the M, temperature.2'3 During the development of a series of martensitic precipitation-hardening (maraging) steels, the effect of several elements on the transformation of austenite to martensite was studied. The results show that under suitable conditions several elements which raise Ae3 also raise the M, and A, temperatures. PREPARATION OF MATERIALS STUDIED A series of alloys was made in which cobalt, titanium, columbium, vanadium, silicon, aluminum, molybdenum, chromium, and nickel were added to an iron base containing 22.5 pct Ni. The compositions of the alloys prepared are given in Table I. The residual manganese contents of the heats were in the range of 0.030 to 0.35 pct, silicon 0.05 to 0.1 pct, carbon 0.0008 to 0.009 pct, and nitrogen from 0 to 0.004 uct. The allois were made as 50-lb induction heats starting with electro-iron and electro-nickel, melted in air to oxidize impurities. Additions of silico-manganese and ferro-silicon were made after which the power was turned off to allow the products of deoxidation to rise and be skimmed from the surface of the melt. The furnace chamber was pumped down to a pressure of 5 p and the charge was heated to 2900°F for the addition of other alloying elements. The heats were poured into five 10-lb ingots, making successive alloy additions to each. The ingots were soaked for 2 hr at 2300°F and hot-worked to 3/4-in.-diam bars. This stock was heated to 1500°F for 1

Jan 1, 1963

By H. A. BURK

THE ores of the Tonopah, district are hard, compact and' highly siliceous. They contain from .1 to 2, per cent. of sulfide material, of which argentite is the valuable mineral; occasionally pyrargyrite is found in the richer ore. The sulfide is, chiefly pyrite with small amounts of chalcopyrite,. and sometimes sphalerite. The ore also contains a small amount of gold-about 1 per cent. by weight of the silver present. The major gangue constituent is quartz but frequently considerable rhodonite-called by the miners pink manganese-is present. For primary crushing, jaw and gyratory crushers are used. These crushers are of such capacity that, in most cases, one 8-hr. shift will supply the mill for 24 hr. The Extension Co., at the Victor ore house, passes the ore through a 13 by. 24-in. Blake type McFarland crusher set at 13 in., and at the No. 29 re house, a 14 by 24-in. Blake type Traylor crusher is used. The ore is thus crushed to stamping size in one reduction. The capacity of each crusher is about 40 tons per hr.; the power consumption is 0.6 kw. per ton.

Jan 1, 1921