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By E. P. Youngman

Zirconium, formerly distinctly a rare element, is rapidly becom- ing of rather extensive commercial importance. Economic features of the zirconium industry, together with general information regarding the metal and its compounds, are discussed in a separate paper, to which this paper is a supplement. In addition to giving a brief discussion of the four or five de- posits that so far have proved to be commercial sources of the element, this circular summarizes available data (including some hitherto unpub lished material from the files of the Bureau of Mines) upon other occur- rences, including many of scientific interest only, of the two commercial. minerals, zircon and baddeleyite, and also data upon some of the minor minerals, such as eudyalite and cyrtolite, which have attracted addition- al interest in recent years because they are frequently richer in hafnium than the more common zirconium minerals.

Jun 1, 1931

By R. Lincoln

A surplus of vanadium has resulted from the tremendous output of uranium, of which vanadium is a byproduct. More knowledge of the properties and characteristics of vanadium as a pure metal has been needed so that industry can take advantage of its availability and use it according to the best principles of conservation. Besides the problem of utilization, there is the ever present need of finding new materials which will satisfy specific and demanding requirements of science and engineering; vanadium or one of its alloys may possess the latent potential for filling some of these needs. Thus this? research project was undertaken by the Bureau of Mines to determine and examine some of the physical and mechanical properties of pure vanadium. A corallary investigation was the determination of the effect of the interstitial contaminants, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon, on unalloyed vanadium. The vanadium used for these determinations was principally the product of experimental production of the Bureau. The evaluation of this material, as small quantities became available, provided most of the data that have been obtained.

Jan 1, 1962

By Sam S. Taylor

In most oil fields, natural gas is the major source of energy causing flow of oil to the well. The amount of gas produced With the oil generally exceeds actual energy requirements, so that in time the gas reserve of the field becomes seriously depleted and the oil production nest be stimulated by some auxiliary means. One of these is to repressure the oil formation with natural gas; or, where a gas supply is not available, often air is used. Although air is a cheap and convenient repressuring medium, its use sometimes is attended with several disadvantages. First, the return air-gas mixture decreases rapidly in fuel value, often until it can be used no longer as a source of power. At the same time, explosive mixtures may result if recycling is used, causing hazards to life and equipment. Second, some fields experience considerable trouble with the formation of emulsions which become increasingly difficult to treat. Although there is no definite proof that air repressuring always causes these emulsions, many operators are convinced that this is the case.

Jan 1, 1934

By J. W. Walkiewicz

The Bureau of Mines investigated alloys containing lanthanum (La), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and magnesium (4g) as possible components of a permanent magnet mate¬rial utilizing a cerium-free synthetic mischmetal (M) as a substitute for scarce samarium (Sm) metal. Magnets containing M-Co-Cu-Mg and M-Co-Cu-Fe-Mg were fabricated by powder metallurgy techniques and evaluated. A synthetic mischmetal (M20) containing 20 pct La, 60 Pr, and 20 Nd yielded the best overall magnetic properties. The M20-Co-Cu-Mg alloys had energy products as high as 13.2 MGOe, remanences as high as 7.89 kG, normal coercivities as high as 6.26 kOe, and intrinsic coercivities as high as 13.4 kOe. The best value of intrinsic coercivity, 22.9 kOe, was obtained with an M-Co-Cu-Mg magnet in which the synthetic misch¬metal contained 30 pct La, 50 Pr, and 20 Nd. These values compare favorably with those of the Sm-Co magnets fabricated and measured at the Bureau's Reno Research Center, which had energy product of 15.1 MGOe, remanence of 7.8 kG, normal coercivity of 7.5 kOe, and intrinsic coercivity of 27.4 kOe. Iron substitution for part of the cobalt resulted in a decrease of magnetic properties, although several percent iron can be added before a drastic loss of magnetic properties occurs.

Jan 1, 1983

By Doris M. Hyde

Mineral output and trade in the Central American countries were directly or indirectly affected by the sometimes violent civil unrest and recessionary economic developments that have pervaded the region for several years. Central American countries found their foreign exchange export earnings and traditional market areas shrinking while essential import costs were rising. Restricted spending measures were adopted by governments and private industries. Domestic investment funds for mineral development and exploration projects were among the first casualties of these austere budgetary measures, especially since weak demand and depressed mineral prices diminished the probability of a favorable cost-benefit ratio. The lack of physical security and political stability also discouraged private foreign investment. The United States Congress enacted the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act of 1983 (19 U.S.C. 2702), more popularly known as the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI). This legislation was designed to stimulate economic recovery and promote economic development by increasing private investment and trade in the Caribbean Basin countries. The act provided for the elimination of U.S. duties on most trade items imported directly from eligible Caribbean countries, provided at least 35% of the product value originated in the region. The financial assistance components of the CBI were to be supportive of the basin's private sector as well as assist general economic stabilization programs.

Jan 1, 1985

By Lloyd G. Fitzgerald

"The dangerous nature of explosives makes them a potential hazard wherever they are used, but they are likely to exercise their greatest harmfulness under conditions inherent in coal mining. The ease with which explosives can be detonated and the suddenness and violence with which they detonate require great care in their handling and use, if acci-dents are to be avoided. Campaigns have been waged by the manufacturers, the Federal Bureau of Mines, coal-mining companies, and other agencies to educate users of explosives in their dangers and in their proper use and care.Probably 95 percent of the explosives accidents can be attributed to poor judgment, carelessness, negligence, or chance taking. In many explosives accidents it is difficult to determine the cause definitely, as the evidence of the origin is destroyed by the blast and frequently those involved have been killed. Survivors of the accident often are of little help in determining the cause, as the accident occurs so suddenly they cannot tell what happened or prefer not to divulge the information they have because it may point to their own carelessness.A survey has indicated that about 10 percent of all fatalities in coal mines were caused by explosives accidents (excluding gas and dust explosions initiated by explosives). A list of explosives accidents by States, from 1925 to 1932, classified according to the severity of the accidents, indicated that Kentucky and Wyoming had the greatest number of fatalities resulting from explosives accidents. Records of the Bureau of Mines show that 14 coal-mine explosions occurred from January 1 to June 1, 1943. Explosives were involved in four of these explosions. Black powder caused two of the accidents and permissible explosives used in a nonpermissible manner the other two. These statistics are mentioned to show that explosives are still causing severe accidents.Elimination of the hazards associated with explosives begins on the surface. Storage magazines should have no opening, except for entrance and ventilation; ventilators should be screened effectively to prevent the admittance of sparks as well as to prevent unauthorized entrance. The interior should be kept clean and dry, and the floor should be of nonsparking material with no metal exposed. The surrounding area should be kept free of combustible material for not less than 25 feet (and preferably 50 feet) in all directions. Storage magazines should be fire-resistant and reasonably bulletproof."

Aug 1, 1944

By N. Fragen, H. H. Stroch

"INTRODUCTION A previous paper by H. H. Storch 4 described. three processes for the production of potassium sulphate from polyhalite (K2S01.MgSO1.2CaS04.2H2o), Since these processes depended upon calcination of polyhalite followed by leaching with water at 100°C., the fundamental reactions occurring in these steps were discussed in detail. This paper, which describes processes producing syngenite (K2S04.CaSO4.H2O) and potassium sulphate and gives data concerning the production of by-product magnesia, presents the results of work performed at the Non metallic Minerals Experiment Station of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, maintained at New Brunswick, N. J., in cooperation with Rutgers University.A study of the solubility relationships of the system 5 Ca++ -Mg++ -K+-SO4 = H20 at 25ºC. shows that syngenite is stable in the presence of a concentrated MgSO4 solution, the K2SO : equilibrium concentration being comparatively low (2.6 per cent), The processes described below, which involve the conversion of calcined polyhalite to syngenite, are based on the 25°C. equilibria. It has further been found that syngenite can be decomposed by water at 100ºC, yielding a 9 to 10 per cent K250 solution, the solid phase being potassium calcium pentasulphate (K2SO, 3CaSO.H2O, hereafter referred to as ""pentasulphate""). This latter compound is unstable in the presence of water at 25°C., its decomposition resulting in a solution containing about 3 per cent of K2SO4 and a solid phase consisting of gypsum. This behaviour of syngenite with water at 100°C. and of pentasulphate with water at 25ºC. constitutes the basis of processes for the production of K2SO4 by way of the conversion of calcined polyhalite to syngenite,Syngenite is a product which may be used as a fertilizer per se. As produced in the process to be described, it contains about 50 per cent of K2SO1, and will readily give up its potash content on treatment with water, although the limiting concentration at ordinary temperatures is approximately 3 per cent. This definite but limited solubility should make this product more desirable as a fertilizer then the more concentrated forms of potash salts which have higher solubilities and hence involve the danger or plant injury due to a high local concentration of potash."

Sep 1, 1931

By Keith A. Heasley, Timotlly M. Barton

Historically, the surface subsidence over underground coal mines has been predicted using empirical profile or influence functions which have little or no connection to the actual mechanics of the subsidence- Without a mechanistic basis, establishing the exact site-specific parameters to use in these empirical methods has been problematic. A practical subsidence predictive method based on mechanics has the appealing capability of allowing the determination of site-specific parameters from fundamental properties of the overburden with minimal field calibration work. This paper presents a case study where a mechanics-based, boundary-element program is used to calculate the surface subsidence associated with several panels of a Northern Appalachian longwall coal mine. The program used in this case study is called LAMODEL, and it incorporates a frictionless, laminated overburden into a general purpose displacement-discontinuity code primarily designed for calculating the stresses and displacements in coal mines or other thin seam or vein type deposits. In this paper. the program is used to calculate both the underground convergence and the resulting surface subsidence at three longwalls. The subsidence results from the model are compared with field measurements and analyzed The results from the case study in this paper demonstrate that the laminated model with calibrated properties can easily provide fairly accurate subsidence predictions and is fairly flexible for fitting measured subsidence. However, additional subsidence predictive case studies are recommended in order to ultimately evaluate the potential of the laminated overburden model for practical subsidence prediction

By G. W. Jones

One of the major activities of the Bureau of Mines is the promotion of safety in mining and other industries, In this connection, the Bureau determines the explosion hazards' of combustible gases, vapors, and solids and investigates means of controlling and preventing explosions. Many dangers are likely to confront men who must enter a building immediately after it has been damaged. Rescue workers must watch constantly for common gases and vapors that may be present in dangerous concentrations in and about demolished, buildings. Fuel gas is the most common source of danger, although refrigerants, gases from furnaces, flues, fires, sewers, and industrial processes, and gas from bomb, explosions in confined places also constitute definite hazards. To rescuers and trapped casualties, these gases offer the hazards of (1) explosion, (2) toxic effects, including asphyxiation and death, and (3) displacement of air so that the oxygen content of the atmosphere is reduced to or below the danger level.

Jan 1, 1944

By J. B. Gayle

The merits of the various methods for dry-quenching coke have been the subject of numerous publications and almost equally numerous controversies for the past 40 years.5/ Most investigators have concluded that dry quenching is advantageous. Some have based their arguments on the improved physical properties of the resultant cokes. Others have claimed little or no improvement and have based their arguments on the economies acquired from the recovery and utilization of sensible heat. The extent to which the method of quenching influences the properties of the resultant cokes is of importance in connection with the operation of both commercial and experimental ovens. On the other hand, the recovery and utilization of sensible heat are economic problems related solely to commercial oven operation and- depend on the method of dry quenching used and the demand for a low intensity energy source. The scope of the present Bureau of Mines investigation has been limited to a comparative study of the properties of wet- and dry-quenched cokes produced from six coals and blends carbonized at flue temperatures of 2, 000° and 2,400° F. in the Tuscaloosa oven.

Jan 1, 1959

By Sidney Speil

In the study of clays and related minerals, the analytical techniques commonly employed in mineral analysis are not always applicable. The X-ray examination of a clay sample usually will show the major constituents, but often minor· clay impurities will not be detected because of line broadening and the similarity of the main lines of clay· mineral diffraction patterns, The petrographic analysis of clay minerals with clay particles as small as a few microns is usually difficult. With still smaller particles, a gross effect often is noted in which a mixture of several constituents gives the appearance of a single constituent with the mean optical-characteristics of the mixture. 3/ The electron microscope has recently been used to study clay particle shapes of various aluminosilicates. 4/ However, this method has not yet been sufficiently explored. The Chemical method in which a mineralogical analysis is calculated from the oxide chemical analysis has been discussed by Wilson 5/ and others, and many of the shortcomings have been pointed out. It should also be recognized that the variable alkali and alkaline earth content of bentonites makes it inaccurate to assign these basic elements arbitrarily to feldspar or mica in any clay that contains appreciable bentonite.

Jul 1, 1944

1. Domestic Production and Use: In 1983, 12 companies operated 27 primary aluminum reduction plants, with 4 firms accounting for 65% of production. Washington, Oregon, and Montana accounted for 35% of the production; Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, New York, Ohio, and West Virginia 35%; Tennessee, Alabama, South Carolina, and North Carolina 14%; other central States 16%. Based on published producer prices, output of primary metal in 1983 was valued at over $5.7 billion. Aluminum consumption by 25,000 firms was centered in the East Central United States. Packaging accounted for an estimated 37% of domestic consumption in 1983, transportation 19%, building 17%, electrical 9%, consumer durables 8%, and other uses 10%.

Jan 1, 1984

By William J. Campbell

This report describes a Bureau of Mines study undertaken to determine the applications and limitations of solution techniques as a general method of fluorescent X-ray spectrographic analysis. Systematic errors due to variations in particle size, surface preparation, and sample inhomogeneity are eliminated by the use of solutions. The range of applicability of fluorescent X-ray spectrography is increased in two ways: (1) Samples in the form of wire, filings, turnings, etc., can be analyzed as solutions, and (2) samples submitted as solutions can be analyzed as received 0 The lower limit of detectability varies from 0.14 gram per liter for sulfur, atomic number 16, to 0.0015 gram per liter for strontium, atomic number 38. Most elements have limits of detectability between 0.02 and 0.002 gram per liter.

Jan 1, 1959

By Neldon L. Jensen

Although ASARCO Incorporated, the only domestic producer, had terminated copper smelting operations and associated recovery of byproduct arsenic trioxide at Tacoma, WA, in 1985, it shipped small quantities of both trioxide and metal from its remaining stocks in 1986. Imports for consumption of arsenic trioxide increased significantly, owing to increased demand for arsenical wood preservatives and the decrease in domestic shipments of trioxide. Prices remained unchanged throughout the year. Development of gallium arsenide integrated circuits, important in advanced military and commercial electronics circuitry, continued to gain momentum during 1986. Domestic Data Coverage.-Shipments of small amounts of arsenic trioxide and metal from remaining stocks by Asarco were reported voluntarily to the Bureau of Mines.

Jan 1, 1988

By Frank E. Chase, John L. Ellenberger, Christopher Mark

The nature of competition in the coal market tends to deplete the most favorable coal reserves first, and forces subsequent development of mines in more extreme ground conditions such as those associated with multiple-seam mining. In fact, 70% of the United States coal reserves are in multiple-seam situations. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is conducting research to develop mine design algorithms that will result in safer multiple seam mines. This paper presents an overview of multiple seam issues in the central Appalachian coalfields. To date, more than 50 case histories have been analyzed from 20 operating mines in Eastern KY, Western VA, and Southern WV. Each case history is classified according to the degree of multiple-seam interaction, ranging from no apparent interaction to severe interaction with direct impacts on mine safety and resource recovery. The case histories are also examined with regard to amount and geologic characteristics of interburden and overburden, and design stability factors. The sequence of mining has also been found to be critical when the lower seam is fully-extracted. This paper compares current case histories to traditional rules of thumb. In addition two situations were modeled using LaModel software. LaModel has been upgraded to import pillar grids and topographic data from AutoCAD files. The cases presented demonstrate vertical stress capabilities of LaModel.

By Galen H. Clevenger

Although there are exceptions, oxidized silver ores containing the higher oxides of manganese are generally refractory to hydrometallurgical methods of treatment. When these ores are of high enough grade they can be smelted; indeed, some rather low-grade ores of this type have been smelted at a profit because of their fluxing value. In the past, when these ores could not be smelted, they either were not treated or were treated at low efficiency, generally by cyanidation. The need for thorough investigation of the problem was therefore evident for some time before the writers began their research. The problem of treating manganese-silver ores seems to have been recognized first about 35 years ago by C. W. Goodale in applying pan amalgamation at Tombstone, Ariz. He attributed the low extraction of silver to the fouling of the mercury by manganese rather than to the presence of a refractory compound of manganese and silver. Although definite knowledge as to the cause of the poor extraction of silver was lacking, a more or less effective preliminary treatment, that is, a chloridizing roast, was applied.

Jan 1, 1925

By R. L. Zick, J. D. Byars, T. P. Mucho

Recently, a large Pittsburgh seam longwall mine was nearing depletion of a major portion of its current reserves and had begun to develop in a different direction from its original portal area to access additional reserves. This meant that a large area of the mine would be abandoned and sealed. However, continued use of the original mine portal area required that the water accumulating in the abandoned mine would eventually need to be pumped to the surface. This would be in addition to the discharge water associated with the new portion of the mine. Several pumping and sump options were investigated to handle the quantity and quality of the anticipated discharge water. This paper describes some of these options, their advantages and disadvantages, and the final engineering decisions. Some problems and unanticipated outcomes, as well as the eventual solutions are discussed, including: (1) estimates of pump requirements, (2) water pool size, (3) eventual water quality, (4) anticipated inflows, and (5) integration into the overall mine water system.

By H. H. Schrenk, W. P. Yant, F. A. Patty

"INTRODUCTION In accordance with the outline of investigation described in a previous report 5 of the Bureau of Mines dealing with the use of acrolein for detecting leakage of methyl chloride from unit--type refrigerating systems, the work has been extended to include an investigation of its use in a multiple system, This report gives the results of analysis of samples of the gas from representative units of a multiple system charged with methyl chloride containing approximately 0.9 per cent acrolein by volume, The results furnish a basis for estimating the Warning that would be given in event of leakage. The properties and warning intensity of acrolein have been described in a previous report. 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis investigation was made at the combined request-of Several Inc., Manufacturers of refrigerating, appliances, and the Roeasler Hasslacher Chemical Co., manufacturers of methyl chloride. Acknowledgment is given to R. M. Major, ,chief chemist of the former firm for arranging the experimental site and equipment; to Arthur O. Haseeneall, owner of the apartment building where the investigation was conducted, for his courtesy in permitting the investigation; and to R. R. Sayers, chief surgeon, Bureau of Mines, and surgeon., U. S. Public Health Service, for suggestions and advice."

Sep 1, 1930

By L. B. Berger

Tests and observations of a Diesel-powered locomotive used for under-ground haulage, in a-clay mine were made by representatives-of the Bureau of Mines .primarily to determine the composition of the exhaust gases produced by the engine under actual haulage conditions-and to determine the effects of the operation on the quality of the mine atmosphere. In addition to ascertaining these conditional t proved interesting to analyze the test, data in regard to certain other performance, characteristics of the engine. This report presents results of tests of the mine locomotive, prefaced by a brief resume of the performance characteristics of Diesel engines to facilitate discussion.

Jan 1, 1948

By Bill Linville

During fiscal year 1969, the Bureau of Mines was engaged in 66 projects to improve methods for producing and utilizing petroleum. Programs directed toward the continued conservation of this natural resource, including crude oil, natural gas, and oil shale, were carried out through research performed at four laboratories supervised and supported by administrative personnel of this Bureau of the Department of the Interior. Over 100 technical papers and reports were published by the Bureau or others based on this research, and numerous other reports were prepared for U.S. Government agencies, State agencies, and organizations of the petroleum and natural gas industry engaged in cooperative research programs with the Bureau.

Jan 1, 1971