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By Robert R. Walden, LaMont West

KENTUCKY'S first acid-grade fluorspar flotation mill, shown in Fig. 1, was placed in operation Aug. 1, 1952, by the Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Co. at Mexico, Ky. During 1951 a critical shortage of acid-grade fluorspar developed and it became necessary for the company to produce part of its fluorspar requirements. In 1951 the company purchased the Crider and Lennen metallurgical fluorspar mill and an adjacent stockpile of tailing at Mexico, Ky. The tailing, assaying about 26 pct calcium fluoride, originated from log washer and jig mill concentrators in the area. As the mill did not have a fluorspar dryer or convenient rail facilities, the company leased the Burleson concentrator at Marion, Ky., where these facilities were available. At Marion, Ky., on the Illinois Central Railroad, dry acid-grade fluorspar is transported direct to the company's Calvert City, Ky., hydrofluoric acid plant.

Jan 5, 1954

By J. L. Humphrey

The origin of roof bolting is obscure, but is believed to have begun some 40 years ago in the mines of St. Joseph Lead Co. in southern Missouri. It was not until after World War II, and more particularly after 1949, as a result of the concentrated effort of the USBM, that roof bolting attracted widespread interest. It is estimated that at the end of 1954, 26 pct of all bituminous coal mining in the U. S. was being done under roof bolts. Those mines alone use nearly 2,000,000 roof bolts per month, according to USBM statistics. Uses in metal mines are increasing rapidly, as confidence and knowledge grow. The application has found equal success in other fields, such as tunneling work for dam and waterway construction and right of way maintenance on highways and railroads.

May 1, 1956

By J. W. R. Rayner

THE conventional method of making water gas involves individual plants for the separate carbonization of coal to coke and the subsequent gasification of coke with steam. The process demands lump coke, preferably made from the best quality of coking coals. The ash in the coke should have a high melting point and the gasification process suffers a loss of efficiency when cokes with law ash-melting points are used. In Britain, these coals are generally the most expensive and they are readily available only in certain localities. The coals not suitable for making lump coke, or yielding only poor quality coke, are much more widely available and are generally cheaper. DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVE PROCESSES In Germany, processes have been developed and operated commercially for the production of water gas from very low-rank coals such as brown coal and lignites, but much less effort has been spent on processes to use coals of intermediate rank, which are widely available in Britain. The brown-coal processes use coal in the form of either dust or briquettes. The most successful of the dust-gasification methods is the Winkler process, which made a substantial contribution to German oil production during the war. It uses coal in the site range 0 to 8 mm and the fuel bed is blown with a mixture of oxygen and steam at a rate high enough to give it a characteristic boiling motion or, in present-day phraseology, at a rate more than sufficient to fluidize it (Fig. 1). Air cannot be used to provide the heat required for gasification, for various reasons. In the first place, to make the process continuous by mixing air and steam would involve the production of a lean gas-containing much nitrogen. If a separate blow were used, a large amount of potential heat would be lost because the blow gas in such a process would contain a very high percentage of carbon monoxide. Oxygen is necessary therefore and oxygen remains relatively expensive for use in gasification. In the Winkler generator, formation of clinker caused by local overheating does not occur, because of the mobility and high heat transfer of a fluidized bed. These properties of fluidized dusts have been used most successfully

Jan 1, 1953

The following list contains the names of members whose death notices have been printed in MINING AND METALLURGY from March 15, 1947 through March 15, 1948 Biographical sketches published in MINING AND METALLURGY are indicated in the last two columns Year of Election - Name - Date of Death - Issue Containing Biography - Page 1938 ABERNATHY, G E , (M) Feb 6, 1948 April 1948 266 1935 ARCHER, M T, (M) Oct 26, 1947 Dec 1947 633 1947 ATIKINSON, JAMES E, (S) Feb 6, 1948 June 1947 309 1940 AYRES, VINCENT L, (M) Oct 14, 1947 Jan 1948 59 1915 BABCOCK, JAMES E , (M) April 1, 1947 June 1947 309 1942 BAGGALEY, WILLIAM BLAIR, (A) Aug 28, 1947 Jan 1948 59 1897 BUIN, II POSTER, (M) Mar 9, 1948 April 1948 219 1945 BAMPFIELD, A E (M) Unknown Mar 1948 215

Jan 1, 1952

By John C. Sawyer

The mechanism of catastrophic oxidation of chromium and 446 stainless steel is examined. Data are presented to show that accelerated oxidation of these two materials, as caused by lead oxide, can occur in the absence of a liquid layer contrary to presently accepted theory. An alternate theory is proposed in which the rate of accelerated oxidation is a function of the rate at which lead oxide destroys the protective oxide formed on the base metal. An example of the application of the theory is given for the catastrophic oxidation of chromium in the presence of lead oxide. WHEN stainless iron-, nickel-, or cobalt-base alloys are heated in air to moderate temperatures in the presence of certain metallic oxides, oxidation will proceed at an accelerated rate. This phenomenon, often called "catastrophic oxidation", is most pronounced for the stainless steels. With these alloys the condition is so severe that large masses of oxide will form on the surface of the alloy in 1 hr or less at temperatures of 1200o to 1700oF. While a number of oxides are known to cause this effect, PbO, V2O5, and Moo3 are the most familiar, having been the subject of one or more investigations which have appeared in the literature.1-7 In presenting the results of these investigations, many of the authors have offered possible explanations to account for the more rapid rate of oxidation observed; however, the liquid layer theory as proposed by Rathenau and Meijering 2 has been the most commonly accepted mechanism. The liquid layer theory proposes that a low-melting oxide layer is formed on the surface of the alloy as the result of the interaction of the alloy oxide and the contaminating oxide. When the temperature of oxidation is above the melting point of the oxide on the surface, a liquid layer will form and oxidation will proceed at an accelerated rate. At temperatures below the melting point of the surface oxide, oxidation will proceed more slowly in the normal manner. It is argued that the rates of diffusion of oxygen and metal ions through the liquid layer are extremely rapid thereby accounting for the high rate of oxidation. Various experimental data have been presented to show that the temperature at which accelerated oxidation first becomes apparent coincides with the melting point of the eutectic oxide which would be present on the surface. Some exceptions have been observed, e.g., silver will oxidize in the presence of Moo3 at temperatures below the lowest melting eutectic; on the other hand, stainless steel will not be catastrophically oxidized at 1500oF in a molten bath of PbO and SiO2. In reviewing the various theories which have been used to explain catastrophic oxidation, Kubaschewski and Hopkins 8 favor the liquid layer theory, but note that, ".. .as experimental observations are not altogether in agreement with this theory (liquid layer theory), one should consider it a necessary but not a sufficient condition." In contemplating the liquid layer theory, it appears that sufficient evidence has not been presented to establish the theory beyond question. As a means of further clarification, a program of research was undertaken to determine in greater detail the mechanism of accelerated oxidation as caused by lead oxide. The first part of the program deals with a comparison of the oxidation of both AISI 446 stainless steel and chromium metal in the presence of lead oxide, vs the oxidation of these two materials in air alone. These comparisons are made at a number of different temperatures, most of which are below the melting point of the surface oxides. The second part of the program is concerned with a presentation of an alternate theory of accelerated oxidation exemplified by the system Cr-PbO-Air. PROCEDURE AND RESULTS Several experimental methods are commonly used to follow the progress of oxidation. One of these, the weight-gain method, was chosen for this work. This procedure requires that a specimen of the alloy be weighed, oxidized for a given period of time at an elevated temperature, and reweighed—the difference between the two weights being noted. The weight gain of the specimen represents the amount of oxygen acquired from the atmosphere to transform a portion of the specimen to oxide. In those cases where there is a tendency for the specimen or oxide to volatilize at the testing temperature, additional data must be collected so that a correction factor can be determined. This factor must be applied to the weight change in order to ascertain the actual amount of oxidation which has taken place. The specimens used for this work were 1 1/2 in.

Jan 1, 1963

By J. A. Pusateri, M. A. Orehoski, N. R. Arant

Plant studies on commercial-size ingots and laboratory experiments with induction furnace heats have demonstrated that the major source of ingot cracks is associated with two conditions arising during top-pouring practice: 1—solidification during pouring, and 2—turbulence created by the impact of the stream. Methods of controlling the two factors were effective in eliminating or significantly reducing ingot cracks. BECAUSE the process of removing surface defects from hot-rolled product is so costly, the steel industry is striving constantly to develop methods of preventing, or at least decreasing, the occurrence of surface defects. Investigations have revealed steel-making and processing variables related to major surface defects, and controlling these variables has led to improvements in surface quality. However, the fundamental causes of major surface defects, such as ingot cracks, have not been determined; consequently such defects persist. At the Research and Development Laboratory of the United States Steel Corp. in Pittsburgh, a seam research program was initiated to determine the fundamental causes of certain major defects. As a part of the program, ingot cracks in killed, finegrained C1020 steel were selected for study. A cost survey indicated that, of the steels produced in sizable tonnages, carbon steels in the range of 0.18 to 0.23 pct C content require the most conditioning. Since this is particularly true of C1020, any im-provement of surface quality that might be effected from the study would be beneficial. Also, since the frequency of ingot cracks is exceedingly high for this grade, the steel would provide an excellent opportunity for a thorough study of the ingot-crack-ing problem. Why steels in this carbon range tend to exhibit more ingot cracks than do other steels was not considered in the investigation; the mechanism of ingot-crack formation was of paramount importance. Also, only the top-pouring practice was considered in the investigation, because this pouring procedure is used more extensively than others. In this study, ingot cracks are defined. as deep surface defects that sometimes are observed in an ingot prior to rolling but usually are observed during the initial stages of rolling on the primary mills. These defects may occur at any angle to the rolling direction but are most prominent in the transverse or nearly transverse direction. The appearance of ingot cracks on the rolled product varies with respect to their angle of formation and with the extent of rolling after their first occurrence. Ingot cracks are also termed "deep seams," "arrowheads," "irregular cracks," and "transverse cracks." Fig. 1 shows ingot cracks in a rolled bloom. This report summarizes: l—the exploratory investigation of commercial-size ingots; 2—the labor-atory investigations related to determining the source of ingot cracks and developing corrective methods; and 3—the plant evaluations of laboratory methods of decreasing ingot cracks. Exploration of lngot Cracks in Commercial Ingots Materials and Experimental Work: At the Du-quesne Works of the United States Steel Corp., five heats of killed, fine-grained C1020 steel were selected for the exploratory phase of the seam-research program. The heats were made by open-hearth practices that are considered most conducive to good surface quality. They were top-poured into 22x25 in. big-end-up hot-topped molds. One as-cast ingot and four other ingots rolled to the following cross-sectional sizes were set aside from each heat: 16x20 in.; 9 1/2x10 in.; 5x5 in.; and 2x2 in. The processing of the heats, from the time of charging in the open hearth furnaces to the end of the rolling operation on the primary mill, was observed carefully and recorded. The cast ingot and the four rolled ingots from each heat were examined for surface defects. The cast ingots were split longitudinally near the vertical center plane to expose the ingot structure beneath badly cracked regions. Also, a series of transverse sections was cut at about 1 in. intervals in a badly cracked area of one ingot. All sections were ground, polished, examined by sulphur printing and deep etching, and photographed. The rolled ingots

Jan 1, 1955

By R. J. Allio, C. H. Randall

An automatic system for the quantitative analysis of microstrulcture has been developed. The method is based upon a statistical model of microstructure and employs phase intercept fractions as fundamental random variables. Structure-sensitive properties can be related explicitly to parameters derived from the distribution of phase intercept fractions in a matevial. THE properties of mechanical dispersions and of multiphase alloys art: intimately related to the amount, distribution, and intrinsic properties of the dispersed material. In many instances, the amount and distribution of the dispersed substances have greater influence on the over-all system properties than do the properties of the dispersed substance-Such properties as average particle size, particle size distribution, homogeneity of dispersion, volume per cent of dispersed phase, and mean free path between dispersed particles thus become critical in any evaluation of the properties of a dispersion. Unfortunately, techniques for evaluating quantitatively the microstructural characteristics of dis~ersions rapidly and accurately have not been available. If necessary, qualitative or semiquantitative devices can be utilized. Some such devices are based merely upon comparison of the specimens in question with arbitrary standards. Other techniques involve superposition of grids and tabulation of particles observed in different portions of the grid. Still other methods based upon lineal analysis entail counting lines or points at random upon the specimen to be examined; the number of intersections of the line with a given phase, the proportion of line or number of points which are covered by given phase are variously recorded. The mathematical basis for most of the techniques of quantitative metallography have been amply reviewed in the literature.'l2 without exctption, however, the standard techniques for quantitative metallography are either imprecise or are exceedingly tedious to apply. For example, tranverse integrating stage for rapid manual areal fraction measurement has been designed by Smith.3 Howerer, as in the case of any device based upon visual eslimation, operator bias may cause appreciable error. Various flying spot devices, on the other hand register particle size distributions in 2-dimensions, from which it is difficult to derive other properties of the dispersion. Thus, e.g., the 3-dimensional distribution cannot be inferred unless certain rather broad assumptions are made concerning the randomness of distribution and geometrical configuration of dispersed phase. Many limitations to the application of quantitative structural analysis can be overcome by the use of the microdensitometer, which is essentially an automated areal analysis device. Data obtained in the form of a distribution of phase intercept values are

Jan 1, 1962

By T. A. Wright

THE-Institute of Metals Division opened on Tuesday afternoon with Wheeler P. Davey as chairman and G. E. Edmunds as vice-chairman. Four papers were on the program, two being of a fundamental character. A paper on "Internal Surface in Minerals and Metals," by R. S. Dean and J. Roster, was presented by the latter; C. H. Gottschalk discussed coercive forces in powders. In answer to a question by the chairman. The author stated that he had not investigated [he temperature coefficient of resistance. A paper on "Recrystallization and Grain Growth in Cold Worked Polycrystalline Metals," by L. W. Eastwood, Arthur E. Bousu, 'and C. T. Eddy, was presented by Mr. Eastwood. A. great many quantitative data were given, with little reference to the theory. Theoretical considerations were discussed by Dr. Gottschalk, and C. A. Edwards of the University College of Wales, contributed very interesting comment on the relationship of size and critical strain. Dr. Edwards discussed the necessity of considering strain with time and temperature.

Jan 1, 1935

By B. D. Thomas

When the origin and early plans, of Battelle Memorial Institute were described in this journal in October 1929 by R. W. Gillett the first director, the doors of the laboratory had just been opened and the hope of the founder that the institution serve the world by research for industry still existed only as an ideal in the minds of the thirty or so employees who then constituted the staff. Since that time the country has experienced troublous times. A devastating depression plunged the entire world into an unprecedented period of financial and industrial inactivity; and the slow recovery of the late thirties was soon to be overtaken and overwhelmed in the violence of war. Through this time of stress Battelle has continued to grow. The staff has increased to almost 600; buildings and equipment have been added, until now it stands in a place of pre-eminence in the metallurgical and engineering world.

Jan 1, 1944

By N. LILIENBERGS

DURING the past few years, the requirements for steel have been raised so high that soundness is more important than ever before. The old practice was to mike steel ingots of sufficiently large sections to permit a considerable reduction of area in rolling and hammering to a given size, relying on the fact that by such rolling and hammering all cavities will be squeezed together and practically eliminated. The finished sizes, if found by inspection of the surface to be faultless, were therefore pronounced to be sound. But when such steel is ?worked up,? the manufacturer is surprised and disappointed to find that it splits, or that streaks and seams make the product unmarketable. Large sections, such as rails, beams or heavy forgings, may, within certain limits, be sufficiently strong, even if the sides of the cavities are only squeezed, and not welded together. But it is well known that, in the interior of heavy articles, under certain conditions, forging may develop small streaks into large cavities. Small sections, steel for ordnance and tubes, and numberless articles in the tool-trade, always show up the defects. It may be doubted whether cavities in steel ingots can ever be completely welded. The old theory, is, that the silver-clear blow-holes, without the blue oxide, can be welded by sufficient working. They are, however, not empty, but are filled with carbonic oxide. It is admitted that the "blue" cavities, resulting from air mechanically drawn down into the mold during the casting, can never be welded, because the oxide does not melt, and there would be no escape for it if it did. The only way in which steel can be made satisfactory for the above-named particular purposes is by having it ?dead molten." But then the trouble of piping is encountered. As is well known, a pipe is the result of the contraction of

May 1, 1906

By Leon Orlowski

THE oil-bearing districts of Poland are found on the slopes of the Carpathian Mountains. The oil belt extends from Gorlice southeast to Stanislawow. It is approximately 250 miles long and 30 miles wide, and comprises four geological districts: the western, or Gorlice district; next, to the east, the Krosno district; the Boryslaw district; and, in the extreme southeast, the Stanislawow district. The amount of petroleum produced in Poland from the beginning of the oil industry scarcely totals 26,000,000 metric tons, or 15 per cent. of the estimated supply. Of this amount, 18,000,000 tons have been taken from the fields of Boryslaw within 25 years; and only about 8,000,000 tons from all other fields within a period twice as long, although some of these other fields represent just as good possibilities as did Boryslaw at the beginning of its development. The Polish oil industry was severely stricken by the war. The retreating Russian armies, in 1915, destroyed a large number, of the existing oil wells, nor was the post-war period favorable for the development of this industry;; the money and credit stringency interfered with the expansion of drilling. But since 1921 there has. been a slow steady increase in production and there is now every reason to believe that conditions in the industry will improve. In fact, an increase in new drillings has been reported for the current year. The production of crude oil in Poland, in 1913, amounted to 1,113,668 metric tons. In 1914, the production declined- to 655,600 metric tons. In 1921, the production was 705,596 tons; in 1922, 712,428 tons, and in 1923, 737,182 tons; or more than 5,000,000 bbl. But the fields have a much greater potential output, which could be realized were the capital available for prospecting and new drilling. The principal producing, and at present most exploited, fields are around Boryslaw and Schodnica. These fields were developed rapidly for in the first year of their modern exploitation the wells were gushers of moderate depth. However, as a result of heavy drilling, the shallow folds have been exhausted and oil can be reached now only by deep drilling. Wells of almost 5600 ft. have been drilled in Boryslaw. Because of these drilling conditions, a large number of engineers and workmen specially skilled in deep drilling are to be found in this field.

Jan 3, 1925

By OTTO HERRES

UTAH has enormous deposits of high-grade bituminous coal. The United States Geological Survey estimates that there are 13,130 sq. mi. of land in Utah known to contain workable coal and these extensive fields contain 196,000,000,000 tons of coal. Growth in population and development of industry in the intermountain and Pacific coast regions will in time give Utah a place with the great coal producing states of the country. Even today, faced by adverse conditions in competition with cheap fuel oil from southern California, water-power throughout the western states in general, and comparatively high freight rates to its distant markets, the Utah coal industry is notable in many respects. In recent years, Utah has led the United States both in the percentage of its mines in class 1, mines producing more than 200,000 tons a year, and in average production per man per day, which was 6.01 tons in 1921. In Mineral Resources of the United States, 1921, Part

Jan 1, 1925

By Floyd C. Kelley

THE literature of the last decade is rich with information relating to the cause and means of control of grain growth in pure metals, but is deficient concerning the role diffusion plays in grain growth, although during this period many new products that depend on diffusion for their properties and success have been developed. Among these are cementation products, produced by calorizing, chromizing, and carbonizing, or by mixing, pressing, and sintering powdered metals such as Syke's iron-molybdenum die material, Genelite, and Elcon Metal (copper, tungsten) etc. This is a fertile field for new developments, but before it can be utilized to the fullest extent there must be a thorough investigation of the processes by which diffusion and grain growth take place. Grain growth plays no small part in the process and certainly the physical properties of these products depend largely on the grain size and state of equilibrium produced. The field of investigation does not end here, but may be extended to the effect of diffusion on impurities, segregations and dendrites in the broad field of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. A number of years ago the author investigated several of these cases and noted, with striking regularity, the pronounced effect of diffusion in promoting recrystallization and grain growth. An example of this phenomenon is given in his paper on chromizing1 which contained photomicrographs of large radial or columnar crystals produced by diffusion of chromium in the solid state. Another manifestation of this effect was discussed by Austen,2 who showed the part hydrogen plays in the decarburization of steel and the effect of diffusion upon the grain structure. DIFFUSION OF METALS IN IRON It seems to be a general law, whenever two metals are brought into intimate contact at a temperature at which diffusion takes place, that a comparatively rapid, or abnormal, grain growth results. The grains

Jan 1, 1928

By J. P. Witherow

The Clapp and Griffiths steel-process may be considered a pneumatic system, similar to the Bessemer, with the difference that the converter is fixed or non-tilting, and that the blast is introduced around the lower section of the converter instead of through its bottom. Mr. Griffiths was engineer-in-chief of the Gilchrist & Thomas basic dephosphorizing process during all the time those gentlemen were experimenting and working up their system, as Mr. G. communicated to me. After separating from these gentlemen, he began developing the present Clapp and Griffiths type of converter. Dr. Clapp, of Nantyglow, Monmouthshire, was a prominent physician in a large iron district. Previous to his association with Mr. Griffiths, he took out some patents on a process of his own for the manufacture of steel, which patents stood in Mr. Griffiths' way; hence the consolidation. Early in the summer of 1883, my attention was called to the experiments of Messrs. Clapp & Griffiths in Great Britain by a friend who had just returned from England. Later in that summer I went to Newport, on the border of Wales, where I met Messrs. Clapp and Griffiths and their friends. After visiting two small converters of their type which were in operation at different works, and spending a few days in the iron-districts of Wales, I went to London, where I met my friend Henry W. Oliver, Jr., who had already heard of the new steel-process. We decided to revisit Wales and examine more fully the process, more especially that Mr. Oliver might have the opportunity of coming practically in contact with the men and die process himself, so that his judgment might not be influenced by my sanguine feelings. On

Jan 1, 1885

By E. C. Truesdale

A FEW years ago H. M. Cyr, working in the Research Laboratories of The New Jersey Zinc Co., produced a few pounds of zinc1 of such purity that no other elements were detected in it by spectrographic analysis, using the facilities then available. This zinc contained less than one ten-thousandth of one per cent of metallic impurities.2 During the decade that followed upon the laboratory production of this "spectro-graphically pure" zinc, commercial developments brought about the production of large tonnages of zinc of purity exceeding 99.99 per cent, and today zinc of 99.999 per cent purity is produced and marketed as "chemically pure" zinc. Typical analyses of present supplies of high-purity zinc are given in Table 1. TABLE 1.-Typical Analyses Percentage by Weight Sum of Zinc Pb, Fe, Pb Fe Cd Al Cd Special High Grades 0.007b 0.005b 0.0056 none 0.0106 C.P. (chemically pure) <0.0002 0.0005° 0.000052 S.P. (spectrographically pure).. <0.0002d <0.00005d a A.S.T.M. Standard Specification for Special High Grade Slab Zinc (A.S.T.M. Designation: B 6-37). b Maximum. c Fe chemically determined. Pb and Cd are spectrographically determined. d Differences between composition of C.P. and S.P. zinc are discussed later in this paper. The availability of commercial tonnages of special high-grade zinc has been the basis for the development of the zinc-base die-casting alloy industry which, in the year 1936, consumed one-eighth of the zinc used in the United States for all purposes. This and the C.P. and S.P. grades have given impetus to scientific investigations into the properties of pure

Jan 1, 1939

By Floyd C. Kelley

The literature of the last decade is rich with information relating to the cause and means of control of grain growth in pure metals, but is deficient concerning the role diffusion plays in grain growth, although during this period many new products that depend on diffusion for their properties and success have been developed. Among these are cementation products, produced by calorizing, chromizing, and carbonizing, or by mixing, pressing, and sintering powdered metals such as Syke&apos;s iron-molybdenum die material, Genelite, and Elcon Metal (copper, tungsten) etc. This is a fertile field for new developments, but before it can be utilized to the fullest extent there must be a thorough invest,igation of the processes by which diffusion and grain growth take place. Grain growth plays no small part in the process and certainly the physical properties of these products depend largely on the grain size and state of equilibtiuni produced. The field of investigation does not end here, but may be extended to the effect of diffusion on impurities, segregations and dendrites in the broad field of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. A number of years ago the author investigated several of these cases and noted, with striking regularity, the pronounced effect of diffusion in promoting recrystallization and grain growth. An example of this phenomenon is given in his paper on chromizingl which contained photomicrographs of large radial or columnar crystals produced by diffusion of chromium in the solid state. Another manifestation of this effect was discussed by Austen,2 who showed the part hydrogen plays in the decarburization of steel and the effect of diffusion upon the grain structure. Diffusion of Metals in Iron It seems to be a general law, whenever two metals are brought into intimate contact at a temperature at which diffusion takes place, that a comparatively rapid, or abnormal, grain growth results. The grains

E. Windsor Richards, London, England:—In reading this paper the most interesting point to me mas the question of the maximum percentage of phosphorus allowable in the steel rail. Mr. Colby said, and we will all agree with him, that the engineer knew, and even a steel-rail maker grants that phosphorus is the most undesirable constituent of steel. We in England have been for a long time considering a specification for the supply of steel rails. This matter has been taken up by the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Mechanical Engineers, the Iron and Steel Institute, the Institute of Naval Architects, and the Electrical Engineers. Committees have been formed,and the whole matter has received most careful attention. They arrived at last at an analysis which I will read: " The carbon is to be from 0.35 to 0.5 per cent.; the manganese from 0.7 to 1.0 per cent.; the silicon, not to exceed 0.10 per cent.; phosphorus, 0.07; and sulphur, 0.07 per cent." As to the phosphorus, which is the most important point of all in the analysis, we have for many years, and indeed until very lately, always agreed to supply steel which would not contain above 0.06 per cent. of phosphorus. Iron-ores are not quite as good now as they were formerly, and the manufacturers at the meetings of the committees referred to, tried to obtain an increase in the allowance of phosphorus. They asked the Sub-committee to agree to 0.08 per cent. of phosphorus. They tried all they possibly could to obtain that; but they failed. English engineers in Great George Street and all over England, representing the important Associa tions I have mentioned, would only agree to 0.07 per cent. and that is the maximum allowance of phosphorus. Mr. Colby is an able advocate, but with all his ability he would not have been able to persuade the English engineers to agree to 0.08 per cent.

Jan 1, 1907

By W. C. Meyer

In an effort to conserve and extend oil resources, the use of powdered coal-in-oil mixtures (COM) as an alternate fuel in oil-fired boilers is receiving increasing attention. For the approach to be successful, some degree of stability of the suspension against settling is needed. The variety of means available to achieve stability of this nonaqueous slurry is reviewed along with some of the physical and chemical concepts which underlie each method.

Jan 1, 1983

By John Treweek

FOR many years the Homestake Mining Co. has devoted serious attention to the elimination of accidents, and ground is steadily being gained in this direction. In accident prevention work it is line-plunging with perfect teamwork and not the spectacular forward pass that brings progress toward the goal. In both surface plants and under- ground workings we regard "good housekeeping" as a first requisite for safety as well as efficiency. Under this term are included all types of safety guards and protective devices as well as cleanliness and orderliness it working places. Perhaps the most important factor in safety work is to arouse and maintain employee interest. The general morale and contentment of employees is of particular importance.

Jan 1, 1938

SAN FRANCISCO SECTION Roy H. ELLIOTT, Chairman - T. A. RICKARD, Vice-chairman W. H. SHOCKLEY, Secretary-Treasurer, 959 Waverley St., Palo Alto, Cal. D. A4. RIORDAN C. F. TOLMAN, JR. A joint meeting of the local sections of the several national engineering societies represented in San Francisco was held at the Engineers&apos;. Club on Thursday evening, Sept. 26, 1918. The subject for the evening, "Fuel Conservation," was ably discussed by a-number of representatives of the Federal Administration and by engineers interested in the generation and utilization of all kinds of power on the Pacific Coast. The following extracts from papers presented at this meeting have been selected as being of the greatest interest and value to members of this Institute. Problems of the Fuel Administration ALBERT E. SCHWABACHER.-America&apos;s war needs call for 100,000,000 more tons of coal this year than in 1917, and 200,000,000 tons more than in 1914, when the war started, and this increase must come from a weaker man-power than that of 1917. It must be transported by a railroad system that has not been improved since the war started, and has been burdened with inconceivably greater demands than were made upon it before the war. This tremendous increased demand must be met by most intensive work in three directions; increased production, efficient conservation, and a distribution system which will insure against lost motion. While every European country has decreased its coal production since the war began, the United States has mined 50,000,000 tons more coal, during the first year of the war, and will increase this by another 50,000,000 the present year. Every 8 days there are being mined and transported as great a weight of coal as of the entire wheat crop of the United States. Of the 735,000,000 tons of coal which must be made available for consumption by our railroads, ships, war industries and people, 100,000,000 tons will come from the anthracite fields, the remainder from the bituminous fields. In 1917 there were produced about 330,000,000 bbl. of oil, and this year an additional amount over last year&apos;s production, of approximately 23,000,000 bbl. will be required. Water power developed 5,000,000 hp., the demand greatly exceeding the available supply.

Jan 12, 1918