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By G. R. Hopkins

"Refiners are generally considered solely as fuel producers, but actually they also comprise a group one of the largest consumers of fuel. For example, during the year 1929 the refineries-burned 51,544,000 barrels of oil as fuel, or the equivalent of over 5 per cent of the crude oil processed in that year. In addition enough other fuels - coal, natural gas, refinery or still gas, and petroleum coke - were utilized to raise the total fuel consumption based on B. t. u. equivalent to more than 10 per cent of the heat value in the total crude oil run to stills. Refineries utilize fuel chiefly as the heat-forming element distillation, but also under-boilers in the formation of steam used in refining, for the heating of buildings, and in the generation of electricity.In the early days of refining, the problem of fuel utilization and fuel economy was of scant importance to the refiners. Margins of profit were comparatively high and the major portion of the operatros1 attention was directed toward increasing their throughput. However, the keen competition that has prevailed in the refining industry over the past five years or more has taught the refiners that their expenses, one of the largest items of which is the cost of fuel, must be curtailed. Thus in 1925 the refiners used an average of 829,000 B. t. u. to refine a barrel of crude oil, wheras by 1929 this average had been reduced to 639,000 B. t. u., a decline of 23 per cent (see fig. 1)Since 1925 oil has ranked first as a refinery fuel (see fig. 2). The use of natural gas increased during 1926 and 1927 but declined in 1928 and 1929. On the other hand, the use of refinery gas has grown rapidly in importance. Coal has shown a steady decline in use at refineries since 1925. Petroleum coke has never supplied more than a very small fraction of the total fuel requirements, although there has been a steady increase in its use."

Sep 1, 1930

By Harold Kennedy

Take a good look at this issue of Minerals and Materials. This is the last issue of M&M, as it has been known within the U.S. Bureau of Mines, that you will receive. Fifteen years after it was created to help cope with a growing worldwide mineral shortage, M&M is ceasing publication. In its place will be a bright, new publication called Minerals Today. Like its venerable predecessor, Minerals Today will be a bimonthly magazine that reports on recent trends and issues in the minerals and materials industries. It will be the Bureau of Mines' most frequent periodical presenting an overview of the entire field of minerals and materials.

Jan 1, 1989

By James D. Noll, Jon A. Hummer, Shawn E. Vanderslice, Aleksandar D. Bugarski, George H. Jr. Schnakenberg, Steven E. Mischler, Larry D. Patts

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health designed and conducted a study in an underground metal mine to assess the effects of selected diesel emissions control technologies on the concentrations of diesel particulate matter and gases in underground mine air. The control technologies studied included diesel particulate filter (DPF) systems, filtration system with disposable filter elements, diesel oxidation catalytic converter, and biodiesel blends. Each technology was tested on a mining vehicle operated in an isolated area of an underground mine supplied with fresh air. These isolated zone tests allowed for the operation of vehicles under conditions and over duty cycles that closely mimic actual duty cycles of production equipment. The DPF systems reduced the elemental carbon (EC) concentrations in mine air between 88% and 99%. The same systems reduced total particulate matter (TPM) concentrations in mine air by approximately 75%. The biodiesel blends B20 and B50 caused a reduction in the EC concentrations of 26% and 48%, respectively. Those blends also reduced TPM concentrations by 9% and 24%, respectively. The use of #1 diesel fuel reduced EC concentration by 13% compared to #2 diesel fuel. An increase in nitrogen dioxide concentration of up to two times was seen when platinum-catalyzed DPF systems were tested.

Jan 5, 2006

By J. G. Haymes

This report by the Bureau of Mines is the first of two proposed papers on evaluation of spectrophotometric, spectrographic, polarographic, and other analytical methods for quantitatively determining impurities in high-purity tungsten. Some of the methods described are standard methods that have been successfully applied to determine low-level impurities, several are modifications of known methods, and some procedures are entirely original. The Bureau of Mines is actively engaged in tungsten research because tungsten has an extremely high melting point, in fact the highest of any known metal. The metallurgist must know the content of impurities in tungsten because of the marked effects even micro amounts of impurity elements have on its physical properties. The Bureau procured a number of analyzed samples of above-average purity from research laboratories of companies engaged in production and fabrication of tungsten. These samples were investigated by the analytical procedures of those companies for several metallic impurities. Subsequent analytical laboratory determination of impurities in these samples agreed with the analyses as reported. With this assurance that analytical methods were basically accurate for metallic impurities, procedures for the determination of several of these elements were modified to lower the limits of detection and increase the sensitivity of methods. Carbon and the gases hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen were determined by standard instrumental methods, modified to provide greater sensitivity for reliable determinations when content of these elements was low. After the reliability of the modified procedures was affirmed, they were used as a product evaluation guide in the development of a vapor-plating technique for the production of high-purity tungsten. The following list of elements can be determined by one or more of these methods: AI, B, Be, Ca, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, S1, Sn, Ti, V, and Zn. In addition, a vacuum-fusion method for the determination of H, N, and 0, and a conductometric method for carbon are described. Lower limits of determination and detection for each element listed are given.

Jan 1, 1962

By Robert E. Wallhagen

This report describes the results of a four year investigation into improved face ventilation systems for underground coal mines. The objective was to experimentally determine configurations for a diffuser fan system and a water spray (spray fan) system which will provide a maximum reduction in face methane concentrations without causing an increase in methane concentrations at the operator's position. The experimental evaluation was performed in full scale mock-up mine entries, simulating continuous mining operations in both a six foot and four foot coal seam complete with normal ventilation, water sprays, and methane emission. A limited study was also performed to assess the effect of scrubber discharge location on methane concentrations in the face area. The results indicated that diffuser fan and spray fan systems that were designed to augment the natural airflow pattern in the entry could provide a factor of 3 to 5 reduction in average methane concentration at the face, compared to a mining machine with just conventional water sprays. The properly designed diffuser and spray fan systems also significantly reduced the total methane present in the entry. A properly designed dust scrubber discharge can reduce face methane levels by a factor of two.

Jan 1, 1977

Numerical models play a significant role in the design of safe underground mining excavations and support systems. Advances in the capabilities of numerical modeling software, together with ever increasing computational speeds, have made it possible to investigate the very nature of the large-scale rock mass and its response to mining excavations. The improved understanding of the rock response obtained from modeling enhances our designs, resulting in greater stability and safety of the mining excavations. To help advance the state of the art in this field, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health organized the International Workshop on Numerical Modeling for Underground Mine Excavation Design. The workshop was held in Asheville, NC, on June 28, 2009, in association with the 43rd U.S. Rock Mechanics Symposium. The proceedings include 10 papers from leading rock mechanics and numerical modeling experts in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Germany. The papers address a wide range of issues, including various numerical modeling approaches, rock mass modeling, and applications in coal and metal mines.

Jun 1, 2009

By Mark S. Sanders

The present study was designed to explore the contribution of organizational climate and management practices to the injury experience in underground coal mines. A cross-lagged panel design was used in which miners from 22 mines completed questionnaires assessing 27 organizational climate, structure, and function dimensions on two occasions, The results strongly support the hypothesis that climate and management practice have casual effect on the incidence of disabling injuries.

Jan 1, 1976

By Forrest T. Moyer

INJURY experience and related employment information are presented in the chapter for the coal-mining, coking, oil and gas, peat, and native asphalt industries in the United States for 1964. No attempt has been made to combine these data and present injury-frequency rates reflecting the mineral-fuel industries because the hazards of the separate industries are not comparable. All rates in the text are calculated separately on data before rounding, hence component rates may not add to the total rates shown in the tables. Tabulations showing the trend of injuries and employment for all mineral industries are presented in Volume III. COAL Injury experience of the coal mining industry was improved in 1964, as measured by the declines of 1 and 14 percent, respectively, in the frequency and severity rates. Although the total number of injuries increased in 1964, a slightly greater proportional increase in man-hours worked caused the frequency rate to drop to 44.65 per million man-hours. The injury-severity rate in 1964 was 7,832 days lost per million man-hours of exposure. Employment and injury data for 1964 are based on final data for anthracite mines and preliminary data for bituminous coal and lignite mines. Fatality experience improved significantly with a record low number of 240 deaths in 1964. This total was 44 less than in 1963. The Nation's coal mines during 1964 were free of major disasters (a single accident resulting in the death of five men or more) for the first time since 1956. The

Jan 1, 1965

By John R. Bradley

The object of this paper is to survey and analyze the bearing of economic nationalism, competitive sources of energy, and technologic developments on international trade in coal with especial reference to the competitive position of the leading coal-exporting countries in the Italian market, the largest in the Mediterranean region, and the Brazilian market, the second largest in Latin America. The political, economic, and financial disturbances caused mainly by the World War have resulted in an amazing situation. Especially since 1930 have conditions been complicated.

Jan 1, 1936

By John D. Watson

The results of extensive field tests of a new and powerful method of hard rock excavation are presented in this report.* The method, known by the acronym REAM (Rapid Excavation and Mining), employs high velocity, smooth bore cannons to efficiently deliver energy to the rock and has been demonstrated for underground tunneling, drilling, surface benching, scaling, and secondary breakage in hard granitic rock at the Hope Valley Mine test site in California. Solid projectiles made from inexpensive materials such as concrete or steel, and weighing from 8 to 12 pounds, are launched by conventional high speed cannons and impact the rock at velocities of 5000 feet per second--an impact energy of about 4 million foot pounds (Figure 1). The energy applied at peak pressures of nearly 2 million psi over a period of tens of microseconds breaks down the rock by a complex mechanism of crushing, spalling, and initiation and propagation of fractures produced by the interaction of successive impacts and free surfaces. The main objective of the tests during 1973 was a demonstration of controllability of the underground operation of a silenced cannon. To accomplish this objective a 90-mm cannon

Jan 1, 1974

By J. A. HUFF, V. V. BAKER

This circular is intended to present in brief form the statutory provisions of Pennsylvania regarding mining operations, in force at the end of the 1931 session of the legislature. lo reference is made to general laws which affect mining only incidentally in common with other subjects, such as the workmens compensation law. The statements have been condensed as far as practicable, and provisions not deemed of general interest, such as matters dealing only with administrative details, have been omitted. This circular obviously is not written with such particularity as to be of great value to the legal profession, but it is hoped that it will be beneficial to the mining industry in giving this information in a relatively compact form. At the end of each paragraph the statute from which it is derived is cited to facilitate reference to the text of the law. It is planned to publish additional circulars from time to time dealing with the mining laws of other States. Any criticisms of the form of publica- tion followed herein, or suggestions aimed at the improvement of future circulars, will be welcomed.

Nov 1, 1932

By Jr. Gabler

The U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) has developed a computerized commodity flow model for strategic and critical materials This flow model is generic and applicable to most commodities and amenable to updating supply, demand, and/or production data change. The original model, with slight modifications, was used to track the flow of chromium. This report follows the flow of chromium through its metallurgical, chemical, and refractory applications, and highlights areas where significant losses occur because of downgrading, export, or disposal. The study indicates that materials containing 451,769 mt of chromium were consumed, including 99,221 mt of chromium from recycling, Chromium losses from all causes in 1989 were estimated to be 345,347 mt from a variety of areas. These areas and their chromium losses are as follows: processing losses, 38,825 mt; processing-downgraded scrap, 18,227 mt; manufacturing losses, 18,128 mt; manufacturing-downgraded scrap, 56,595 mt; prompt scrap exported, 1,531 mt; obsolete scrap exported, 43,443 mt; recovery losses, 155,529 mt; and recycling losses, 13,069 mt. Recycled chromium-containing material accounted for 22 pct of the apparent consumption of chromium in 1989.

Jan 1, 1994

VOLUME I Volume I of this three-volume report is the result of development of a comprehensive, coordinated approach to site data-acquisition activities to produce key plans and reports during the evaluation and development of a surface coal mine. A logic diagram illustrates activities in the planning and decision-making process from exploration through post-mining monitoring. The report briefly discusses major elements, other than the site environment, which influence development of mining and reclamation plans and refers to other readily available literature for details outside the scope of this study. The essence of the rationale is shown to be the 1 employment of necessary skills at the proper time to evaluate specific data ' requirements and integrate them into a cost-effective program to produce initial and major feasibility reports, mining, and reclamation plans, and the environmental impact assessment.

Jan 1, 1976

By Bill Linville

During fiscal year 1969, the Bureau of Mines was engaged in 66 projects to improve methods for producing and utilizing petroleum. Programs directed toward the continued conservation of this natural resource, including crude oil, natural gas, and oil shale, were carried out through research performed at four laboratories supervised and supported by administrative personnel of this Bureau of the Department of the Interior. Over 100 technical papers and reports were published by the Bureau or others based on this research, and numerous other reports were prepared for U.S. Government agencies, State agencies, and organizations of the petroleum and natural gas industry engaged in cooperative research programs with the Bureau.

Jan 1, 1971

By F. H. Willcox

This publication is the third of a series of reports on hazards and the prevention of accidents at blast-furnace plants that is being published by the Bureau of Mines, Technical Paper 106a being the first and Technical Paper 136b the second of the series. This bulletin, which is arranged in three parts, treats of the causes and prevention of blast-furnace breakouts, explosions, and slips. The first part discusses blast-furnace breakouts, the hazards therefrom, causes, and features of furnace design and methods of operation that tend to prevent breakouts or lessen their number, and points out safety measures to be adopted. The second part takes up the theory and causes of gas explosions at blast-furnace plants and reviews the better methods in use for handling gas. The third part analyzes the causes of hanging and scaffolding in blast furnaces, with the resulting slips that frequently cause injury to the plant and danger to the workmen, describes features of construction and furnace design and methods of operation employed to prevent hanging and slipping, and suggests precautions and safeguards.

Jan 1, 1917

Prier to the date of this contract, Ocean Energy had developed and demonstrated a high efficiency fluorescent caplamp which operated from a standard 4 volt miner's caplamp battery. This unit produced about five times the light output of the standard incandescent miner's caplamp. The Company believed that the major market for this unique caplamp was in the industrial and municipal applications. Because of the additional safety requirements for coal mining use, and in conjunction with the much smaller market in the mining industry, the additional expense and difficulty of modifying this caplamp to comply with the Federal and State coal mine regulations were not considered at that time. Recognizing the potential of this lamp for improving illumination conditions for underground coal mining, the US Bureau of Mines contracted with Ocean Energy to make the required modifications to this lamp to bring it into compliance with the Federal and State of Pennsylvania regulations, and thereby, make this lamp available to the anthracite and bituminous coal mining industry. At the outset of the contract, the injection molds for the caplamp housing were being completed, and only prototype, hand fabricated, units were available for tests. The Bureau evaluated these prototype units and formulated a performance specification for the miner's version. Light level and distribution, weight, size, angle of tilt, and operating duration were all specified. In addition, it was required that the caplamp be com¬patible with existin charging equipment at the mines and that the final design be in full compliance with MESA Schedule 6D and he ultimately approved by MESA, Approval and Testing, as well as by the Pennsylvania Bureau of Deep Mine Safety. The scope of this contract covered the modifications required to achieve these objectives. It was agreed by the Bureau that all rights to the lamp, including design, material combinations, circuitry, etc. would remain with Ocean Energy. The charger/adapter system and components, which were developed under contract funds, are disclosed hero and become public knowledge and property. Patent applications have been filed by Ocean Energy to protect the mechanical and electrical design aspects of the lamp. It should be noted that this report contains details, designs and data which may be covered by one or more Ocean Energy patent applications, and disclosure herein is made only to provide better understanding of the contract results.

Jan 1, 1975

By Otto L. Schumacher

The Overthrust Belt in portions of Montana, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming, an area that has contributed generously to the Nation's mineral supply, is one of the few remaining oil and gas frontiers on the North American continent. Determination of the oil and gas potential and development of mineral resources of the area have been affected by a variety of land withdrawals and other restrictions, The purpose of this study is to determine the extent of these withdrawals and restrictions and to discuss the mineral resource potential within the study area. Statistics in this report refer to land status on January 1, 1979. At that time, of the 27.3 million acres of Federal mineral lands within the study area, applications tor Federal oil and gas leases for more than 4,4 million acres (about 16 percent) were pending; the average length of time was 2 years. Federal oil and gas leases covering 8.8 million acres were also on record. Although drilling has occurred on some of these leases, others are subject to restrictions that discourage or prevent development. Some in fact contain stipulations disallowing any development.

Jan 1, 1981

By N. S. Petersen

As part of the Demand Evaluation Program of the Bureau of Mines to determine future needs for minerals, a study was instituted to develop and describe a methodology for approaching the problem of substitution between mineral commodities and between mineral commodities and other materials. The report comprises three sections: A review of general factors relative to substitution, a case study of the effect of substitution on zinc die-casting markets in recent years, and a general methodology for reviewing materials substitution with specific emphasis derived from reviewing substitution in the domestic zinc die-casting markets.

Jan 1, 1971

By Hewitt Wilson

Until recent years the term "whiting" was applied exclusively to the water-ground chalks of certain north European countries. In many industries these are still considered superior to the whiting made from domestic limestone and marble. However, the latter material has replaced much of the European whiting in the American market, largely due to improvements in grinding and classification by American manufacturers.4 To encourage the domestic industry, the Bureau of Mines in 1931 undertook a study of the preparation of whiting from American raw materials and a comparison of the finished products with European whitings.

Jan 1, 1937

By BUREAU OF MINES

This report is submitted in accordance with provisions of the Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act of April 5, 1944 (30 U. S. C. 321-325, as amended), which require that: "The Secretary of the Interior shall render to Congress on or before the first day of January of each year a report on all operations under this Act." Owing to the broad scope of the content and the diversity of interests represented, the Annual Report for 1954 has been divided into two separate publications. Each is being published by the Bureau of Mines as a Report of Investigations, and the respective titles follow: R. I. 5118, Part I - R. I. 5119, Part II - 011 From Coal. 011 From 011 Shale. The introduction, identical in both reports, summarizes research progress in 1954 under the entire Synthetic Liquid Fuels program. A free copy of either publication may be obtained by writing to the Bureau of Mines, Publications Distribution Sec- tion, 4800 Forbes Street, Pittsburgh 13, Pa. The R. I. number and title of the publication desired should be indicated.

Mar 1, 1955