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By P. L. Menaul, P. P. Spafford

This paper discusses the most dangerous form of corrosion encountered in condensate-well oil production, the discovery of the agent causing this corrosion and the remedial chemical treatment proved effective by field use. The injection of ammonium hydroxide, even as little as one quart per day, has proved effective in preventing gas-condensate well corrosion. The injection of "Bone oil" is applied to wells producing brines containing calcium and magnesium salts. Introduction The severe corrosion of equipment in high pressure gas condensate wells has been a problem for several years and numerous papers have been presented on the subject. The term "gas condensate" or "distillate well" is applied to a distinct variety of hydrocarbon producing well, the characteristics of these wells being high bottom-hole (formation) pressures and temperatures and high gas production. These wells usually produce about 40 gal of water per million cubic feet of gas and the gas contains from 0.1 pct to 2 pct carbon dioxide. In the operation of this type of well, the operators soon noted severe internal corrosion of the pipe carrying the production. In some instances the dl tubing has been found to be corroded to perforation in eight months. The high well head pressures of 2500 to 8000 psi makes any weakening of the well equipment by corrosion extremely hazardous. Bursting of the well equipment results in very expensive repair operations and may result in the loss of valuable production, loss of the costly well, or even loss of life. In November 1944, a gas-condensate well in a Gulf Coast field producing from 9500 ft showed a tubing leak. The well was "killed" by filling it with mud through the tubing, and then the tubing was pulled. Corrosion was found to have caused several perforations in the tubing, Fig I. While the mud was being circulated to kill the well, a high pressure jet from the corroded hole in the tubing perforated the casing and damaged the well to the extent that the cost of repairs amounted to $75,000. In November 1944, another gas-con-densate well in a Gulf Coast field producing from 11,400 ft showed tubing failure. This well had been producing an average of 2,500,000 cu ft of gas daily for two years. In the workover of this well, it was found that a hole one inch in diameter had corroded through the tubing and that corrosion had reduced the wall of the tubing to less than half the standard thickness over large areas of the interior of the tubing. It was found that corrosion had also caused two leaks in the casing. After four months spent in an attempted workover failed to make the well safe for further production, the well was plugged and abandoned at a total loss of $300,000,00.

Jan 1, 1948

By Ian William Wark, Alwyn Birchmore Cox

In defending the chemical theory of flotation, Taggart, del Giudice and Ziehl have criticized1 the views of those who prefer to attribute the effects of certain flotation agents to adsorption. Perhaps with some justification, they describe the latter term as the "haven of refuge of writers lost in a morass of shaky experiment and muddy thinking." We prefer to regard it, however, as a haven of refuge for writers who seek a conventional term to describe the formation of films of flotation reagents on solid surfaces, because in many cases it is not yet possible to specify the forces that hold them there. Originally, as Taggart and his associates state, adsorption connoted a concentration difference and nothing more. In recent years, workers in the field of surface chemistry have tacitly added other meanings, and they now speak of orientated adsorption of unimolecular films on a solid sub-strate, of chemi-adsorption, and of exchange adsorption. Thus the term adsorption may connote simply the Gibbs layer of excess concentration at the surface of a solution, or a unimolecular film at the surface of a solid. Perhaps this has led to the misunderstanding of Taggart, del Giudice and Ziehl concerning the relationship between surface tension and adsorption at solid surfaces. The change in "surface tension" accompanying adsorption at a liquid surface can be used as a measure of the adsorption, and the Gibbs equation as quoted by these authors correlates these two conceptions. But, to correlate two conceptions docs not necessarily imply an attempt to explain either, although sometimes such an "explanation" is carelessly inferred. Use of "surface energy per unit area" instead of the numerically equal but more difficult and less definite conception of "surface tension per unit length " would lessen many of the present difficulties. (Compare with Adam.2) At interfaces involving a solid phase, neither '" surface tension " nor " interfacial tension "can have any meaning, but the conception "interfacial energy per unit area" call be understood by anyone who is familiar with the concept of free energy. While it is true that surface energy cannot be directly measured at a solid surface,

Jan 1, 1939

By Charles E. Weaver

During the past few years there has been considerable activity in prospecting for oil and gas in several parts of western washington. From time to time seepages of oil or emanations of gas have been reported from various places. Several companies have been organized for the purpose of drilling, but only a part of these have actually begun operations. In certain localities very small seepages of oil occur, but up to the present time no oil or gas in commercial quantities has been obtained. In order to determine the conditions which may be favorable or unfavorable to the occurrence of petroleum it becomes necessary to know the character and extent of the geological formations in which such deposits might occur. In other regions where producing wells have been developed it is possible to know what formations contain the oil and what structural conditions influence its concentration in reservoirs or zones. It is usually possible to determine those strata which contained the materials from which the petroleum may have been derived and also the position and distribution of the more porous sandstone belts into which it may have collected. Detailed stratigraphic surveys may even determine the depth at which a certain known oil-bearing zone may be tapped at any particular place. It is also possible to recognize those formations which are presumably barren of oil, as well as those which are absolutely so. In new regions far distant from any of those which are now producing or have produced in the past, it becomes absolutely impossible to foretell whether oil may exist in commercial quantities or not. Assuming that such deposits do exist, it is extremely difficult to predict at what depth the produciqg zone or zones occur. However, in prospecting in a new and unexplored region, use should be made of such laws as have been found to govern the occurrence of petroleum deposits in other well-developed fields. Such deposits in their world-wide distribution are found almost exclusively associated with sedimentary rocks. Areas composed predominatingly of igneous and metamorphosed rocks are to be rcgarded as extremely unfavorable localities for the occurrence of commercial deposits of oil or gas. Assuming that such oil deposits are

Jan 1, 1916

Discussion of the paper of A. P. WATT, presented at the St. Louis meeting, October, 1917, and printed in Bulletin No. 130, October, 1917, pp. 1476 to 1563. THE CHAIRMAN (0. M. _BILHARZ, Miami, Okla.).-Mr. Watt's reference to sorting or hand-picking of the ore in the lead district, which is being introduced at Mine La Motte, is especially interesting. I believe, from my former experience in the district, that hand-picking should be practised to some extent by all the companies in the Lead Belt. I know that a great many thousand tons containing only very small amounts of lead are passed through the mills, which, of course, is not to the advantage of milling machinery. That procedure may be Warranted at times of high prices, but I think that hand-picking should ordinarily be adopted to some extent: ERNEST GAYFORD, Salt Lake City, Utah.-On page 1525, speaking of the settling of slime previous to treatment either on slime tables or by flotation, Mr. Watt states: "The settling area allowed per ton of dry slime varies from 11 to 16 sq. ft.-an average for the district would be about 13 sq. ft. of settling area per ton of dry slime. This figure applies when the, discharge contains 20 per cent. solids." Mr. Ramsey, of the Dorr company, is here and I would like to ask him whether a settling area of 13 sq. ft. per ton of dry slime per 24 hr. is not considerably above the average area of Dorr settling tanks, and whether 20 per cent. solids is not above the general dilution for that' capacity? I should also like to know what is the general average on slimes of that character. E. R. RAMSEY, Denver, Colo.-An allowance of 13 sq. ft. per ton does seem rather large. I am not familiar with the settling characteristics of the dolomitic gangue, but as an average over the country, I should say that 6 or 7 sq. ft. would be nearer correct for discharge at that consistency. L. A. DELANO, Bowie Terre, Mo.-We have had an opportunity to try our tanks at the highest capacity, and-find that by thickening the slime to 30 per cent. solids we average 12 sq. ft. per ton of dry slime. ERNEST GAYFORD.-DO you find any definite ratio between the thickness of the discharge and the settling capacity of the tank? Do you consider that the tank has a larger capacity if the discharge is 3 to 1 than if it is 50 per cent. solids? L. A. DELANO.-I think it has greater capacity with the thinner discharge. It depends a good deal on the density of feed to the tanks; in our case the feed contains 2.5 per cent. solids.

Jan 1, 1918

By J. C. Jaeger, G. A. Wiebols, N. G. W. Cook

It is usual practice in engineering to design a stable structure by ensuring that the stresses in the elements of the structure are always less than their strength, which may be defined as the yield stress, the ultimate stress, or the fatigue stress, according to the type of the load. Such restrictive design is not practical in the design of underground excavations since the rock surrounding such structures is usually failed, but only occasionally does this give rise to instability of the structure. Thus, while the usual criterion for the design of a stable structure is certainly sufficient, it is not necessary for underground excavations. A proper understanding of the conditions necessary for stability is vital to the useful application of rock mechanics knowledge to the design of underground structures. Most tests on the properties and strength of brittle rocks are disrupted at or near maximum load by the rapid release into the specimen of energy stored in the resilience of the testing machine. This is in contrast with a phenomenon, which may be observed frequently, where the rock immediately surrounding an excavation is both failed and subject to stress. By postulating a complete stress-strain curve for rock, it can be shown that failure is unstable or stable, depending upon whether the stress-strain curve of the rock lies inside or outside the stress-strain characteristics of the applied stress. Stability is, therefore, a function of the stiffness of the system applying the stress relative to that of the failing rock. Many workers have established that the strength of rock specimens under a lateral hydrostatic confining stress varies linearly with confining stress, in a way which may be expressed by the equation CT=Co+K[o]3

Jan 1, 1972

By Louise Barton Freeman, Coleman D. Hunter

The total production of oil in Kentucky during the year 1943 reached 7,010,776 bbl., which is more than at any time since 1930. Of this total, 5,287,659 bbl. was produced from the counties west of the Cincinnati arch, 692,359 bbl. from the 18 new pools opened during the year, and 3,260,765 from the Smith Mills pool, which was discovered in August of 1942. This is an important increase in western Kentucky in spite of the low price of crude, and demonstrates effectively the desire of the industry to cooperate in meeting the increased demands made by the war. Western Kentucky Two deep tests were drilled in the Kentucky portion of the Mississippi Embayment this year. Both were drilled to test the St. Peter. One well, drilled in Marshall County by the Adams Oil and Gas Co., did not encounter any St. Peter sandstone but drilled 650 ft. of formation below the position of the St. Peter and above the true Knox dolomite. The other well, in Ballard County, was reported to have tested the St. Peter and to have been temporarily abandoned at 3069 ft. At this depth the well probably was stopped in about the same formation as the Marshall County well. No accurate information is available on the Ballard County well. Several new producing areas were added to the list of fields in the western Kentucky coal basin, in Daviess, Henderson, McLean, Ohio, Union and Webster Counties. The Smith Mills pool was enlarged and production was found in the McClosky (Ste. Genevieve) in addition to the Cypress sandstone from which much of the earlier production had been obtained. There was some interest during the year in testing the Devonian and Silurian formations in the area south and east of the western Kentucky coal basin. In the fall of 1943, a 15 to 20-bbl. well was drilled in Allen County and two more wells are now being drilled. The production was obtained from within a few feet of the base of the Chattanooga black shale, probably in the upper Silurian. One well in Simpson County was drilled completely through the Silurian section before it was abandoned. Several wells were drilled in Logan, Todd and Christian Counties to test the Devonian where it is thinned by removal of the upper formations before deposition of the Chattanooga shale. None of these wells was successful but several other locations are now being tested. The Silurian thins in like manner on the eastern flank of the coal basin as the crest of the Cincinnati arch is approached, and it is along this thinning edge that such fields as the LeGrande, Logsdon Valley, Magnolia, Bowling Green and the Barren County pools were developed. A number of wells were drilled around these old pools in an effort to extend them, some of which were successful. The wells listed this year in Larue, Hardin, Barren, Hart and Warren Counties were drilled in the search for other such fields.

Jan 1, 1944

By B. D. Cullity

A distribution of residual stress after plastic elongation is proposed, in which the bulk of the material is strained in compression and a very small portion in tension, This distribution is shown to account both for the X-ray observations and for the effect of plastic straining on magnetic losses in silicon steel. The regions left in compression are tentatively identified with the interiors of the sub-grains revealed by the electron microscope. THIS paper is concerned with the general problem of the nature of the residual stress which is produced in metals by plastic elongation. A particular stress distribution will be suggested which accounts for the main X-ray diffraction observations which have been made. It will also be shown that certain magnetic measurements made on silicon steel can be understood in terms of this stress distribution. X-RAY OBSERVATIONS Uniform straining of a crystal lattice (macro-strain) causes a diffracted X-ray beam to shift its position, and nonuniform straining (microstrain) causes line broadening. If a bar of metal is plastically elongated in the longitudinal x direction and then unloaded, diffracted X-ray lines are observed to be both shifted and broadened.'-= Although the observed line shift indicates the presence of macro-strain, experiments have shown that no macrostrain, in the usual engineering sense of the term, exists.5"7 For example, removal of a layer from one surface of a stretched and unloaded bar does not produce curvature in the remainder of the bar 5'7 Fig. 1 shows the variation of lattice strain in the x direction, as determined from X-ray line shifts, with the applied stress in the same direction. The curve ABC is the normal stress-strain curve of the material, AB being the elastic portion and BC the plastic. In the elastic region AB, the strain measured by X-rays, called the lattice strain, and the strain measured mechanically are both proportional to the applied stress, and both return to zero when the applied stress is removed. Above the elastic limit the lattice strain would be expected to continue to increase along the line BD. Actually, it increases less rapidly with respect to stress, or even decreases, as shown by BE. If the applied stress is then decreased, the lattice strain decreases along EF, which is parallel to AB. As a result, there is a compressive residual lattice strain FA after unloading. STRESS DISTRIBUTION. Since a stretched and unloaded bar does not contain macrostress, it follows that the observed line shift must be due to a special distribution of mi-crostress. Such a distribution is shown in Fig. 2, which shows the variation of the stress u, across a stretched and unloaded bar. The material is assumed to consist of two kinds of regions: regions C, stressed more or less uniformly in compression, comprising the bulk of the volume of the material and responsible for the observed diffrac-

Jan 1, 1963

By Blamey Stevens

(Butte Meeting, August, 1913.) THE following paper aims to make a full explanation of the phenomena of rock jointing: It may be unnecessary to give any general description of what are termed joints in rocks, but Professor Geikie's clear and faithful generalizations are so illuminating that no excuse need be given. for introducing the following and other quotations into this paper "Almost all rocks are traversed by vertical or highly inclined divisional planes termed joints. These have been regarded as due in some way to contraction during consolidation (fissures of retreat) ; and this is no doubt their origin in innumerable cases. But, on the other hand, their frequent regularity and persistence across materials of very varying texture suggest rather the effects of internal pressure and movement within the crust." 1 General Explanation.-In this paper I show that the phenomenon of jointing may to a large extent be accounted for by the pressure of the water contained in the pores of the rock. To understand this, each constituent grain of the porous material may be considered to be separately compressed by the water which submerges it. As all the grains are held together by cohesion, the whole mass is contracted by this pressure. In an indefinitely extended mass, however, there must be a limit to the possible contraction without rupture, because the material is restrained from moving freely by other material around its boundaries. The mass of rock thus becomes broken up. This phenomenon is known as '" shrinkage " jointing. The term " shrinkage " is an apt one, if it be understood that the shrinkage of the rock is often brought about by change of stress. Stresses.-The compressive component of water stress on the individual grains is evidently the same as that of the water with which it is in contact. This is so, both before and after the jointing is formed. Before the jointing is formed there is, however, a tensile stress in one or more directions which keeps the material from contracting. .

Jan 7, 1913

By G. E. Anderson

The Asientos-Tepezala district is in the north of the State of Aguasca-lientes, about 30 miles north of the city of Aguascalientes, the capital. The district is reached by a standard-gage railway on the west side through the junction, Rincon de Romos, which is on the main line of the National Railways of Mexico from El Paso to Aguscalientes. The terminal is Tepezala. On the east side a narrow gage connects Asientos with the junction, San Gil, on the main line, Asientos to San Luis Potosi. Tepezala on the west side of the Asientos hills is about 2 miles from Asientos on the east side. The area between the two mining centers is separated by a low subdued divide which forms the central part of the hills. The district is in a group of isolated hills surrounded by characteristic bolsón plains. The hills rise above the surrounding plains about 6500 to 10,000 ft.; the highest peak is Alta Mira. The two mining districts lie somewhat upon the flanks of the hills at about the same elevation, 7200 ft. The district is an old one and has been known since early in the 17th Century when the mines were worked by the Franciscan Monks. Their mining operations, which were limited to the oxidized ore above the water level, consisted chiefly in extracting silver from the Santa Francisca vein. To judge from the old workings and the remains of surface plant, the operations were on a large scale. By modern mining operations since about 1900, the various mines of the district have been one of the principal sourees of ore for the smelter located at Aguascalientes. Topography The topographic features of the Asientos hills are largely controlled by the character of the underlying rocks. During the Tertiary period, the entire group of hills was probably covered by extrusive volcanic material in the form of cones and lava flows. The central part of these have since been carried away by erosion, so that remnants have been left along the borders of the hills. These remnants form rather conspicuous peaks,

Jan 1, 1927

By William E. Schoeneck

This paper presents the problem of oil-well abandonment as a group of studies involving the compilation of physical well data, the use of special curves, maps, and interpretative Procedures, in order that operations can be analyzed and means for reducing costs can be effected. Methods for the calculation of the economic limit of production and resultant oil reserves are suggested in order that profitable production may be continued and premature abandonment prevented. INTRODUCTION Purpose Extensive studies have been made and much has been written on the procedures for prospecting, drilling, completion, production and repair of oil wells, but the writer has long felt the need for a study of the procedure that should be followed when considering the abandonment of a well. The production from numerous well bores of a fluid material (a circumstance peculiar to the oil industry) that is continually decreasing in quantity leads to an increasing ratio of operating cost to production. It is for this reason that oil fields are not abandoned as a whole and detailed consideration of each well is required before it can be determined whether more is being expended than will be returned On any well or lease in question. It is the purpose of this paper, therefore, to compile, correlate, and present all matters worthy of consideration in the problem of oil-well abandonment; to suggest interpretative procedures based on such compilations, to the end that reliable estimates of reserves and life may be obtained; to show, as a result of such interpretative procedures, the possibilities for corrective measures conducive to economical production, thereby extending both profitable reserves and length of life. Scope and Approach Compiling data and outlining a study having the complexity of the problem at hand are naturally subject to the personal experiences of one who undertakes the study; however, the chosen approach and grouping of the subject material may be helpful in the consideration of abandonment problems. Consideration has been given to wells that make gas and water incident with the production of oil; but consideration has not been given to either gas wells or condensate-producing wells, for wells of the latter type have sufficient problems to warrant separate investigation. The major subdivisions of this paper-— physical considerations and economic considerations—do not imply that either of these phases can be considered independently, but rather that the two are mutually dependent and are the component parts of an engineering study.

Jan 1, 1946

By P. L. Menaul, P. P. Spafford

This paper discusses the most dangerous form of corrosion encountered in condensate-well oil production, the discovery of the agent causing this corrosion and the remedial chemical treatment proved effective by field use. The injection of ammonium hydroxide, even as little as one quart per day, has proved effective in preventing gas-condensate well corrosion. The injection of "Bone oil" is applied to wells producing brines containing calcium and magnesium salts. Introduction The severe corrosion of equipment in high pressure gas condensate wells has been a problem for several years and numerous papers have been presented on the subject. The term "gas condensate" or "distillate well" is applied to a distinct variety of hydrocarbon producing well, the characteristics of these wells being high bottom-hole (formation) pressures and temperatures and high gas production. These wells usually produce about 40 gal of water per million cubic feet of gas and the gas contains from 0.1 pct to 2 pct carbon dioxide. In the operation of this type of well, the operators soon noted severe internal corrosion of the pipe carrying the production. In some instances the dl tubing has been found to be corroded to perforation in eight months. The high well head pressures of 2500 to 8000 psi makes any weakening of the well equipment by corrosion extremely hazardous. Bursting of the well equipment results in very expensive repair operations and may result in the loss of valuable production, loss of the costly well, or even loss of life. In November 1944, a gas-condensate well in a Gulf Coast field producing from 9500 ft showed a tubing leak. The well was "killed" by filling it with mud through the tubing, and then the tubing was pulled. Corrosion was found to have caused several perforations in the tubing, Fig I. While the mud was being circulated to kill the well, a high pressure jet from the corroded hole in the tubing perforated the casing and damaged the well to the extent that the cost of repairs amounted to $75,000. In November 1944, another gas-con-densate well in a Gulf Coast field producing from 11,400 ft showed tubing failure. This well had been producing an average of 2,500,000 cu ft of gas daily for two years. In the workover of this well, it was found that a hole one inch in diameter had corroded through the tubing and that corrosion had reduced the wall of the tubing to less than half the standard thickness over large areas of the interior of the tubing. It was found that corrosion had also caused two leaks in the casing. After four months spent in an attempted workover failed to make the well safe for further production, the well was plugged and abandoned at a total loss of $300,000,00.

Jan 1, 1948

By E. A. Holbrook

Research, primarily, is finding out the truth. Research applied to enigeering opens the door to new principies and processes, the application of which benefits mankind in a material way. The engineer believes that investigation instituted with the primary view of making the results directly applicable to the industries is the highest type of research. Coal is essentially the basis of modern industrial civilization; therefore, any considerable research pertaining to coal must link itself to the industry by practical application of the results of the research. In other words, all investigational work connected in any way with coal leads to conclusions that permit a better understanding of the origin, nature of occurrence, composition, better and safer mining, more careful preparation, or greater efficiency in utilization of coal. Modern engineering research has been fostered essentially by universities and in the laboratories of institutions of learning. Coal problems that lend themselves to solution in the laboratories have been first attacked and are perhaps the farthest toward solution. For example, a great amount of research work has been carried out with the various phases of chemistry connected with coal. On the other hand, the equally important problems connected with methods of mining have received but little attention, primarily because their solution involves the continued use of a great and expensive laboratory, which is none other than the mine itself. As many of the problems already solved have had chemistry as their background, so many of the problems unsolved have physics as their background; there are also unsolved problems that deal in coal economics. Even psychology must be called upon in future coal-mining research as a basis for solving those great problems that deal with human relationships. 'In general, considerable advance has been made in coal research dealing with chemistry, not so much progress has been made with problems having physics and engineering as a background, while there is a tremendous range of untouched problems that deal essentially with business and psychology. Research in coal mining is not a new development. In the chronicles of the northern coal trade as published in the Transactions of the North

Jan 1, 1920

GENTLEMEN Herewith are transmitted reports from the Treasurer and of the principal standing committees of the Institute. To these special reports members are referred for details as to the year's work. Despite the unfavorable business conditions obtaining throughout the year, the Institute was able to carry on its various activities without curtailment and without drawing on the surplus accumulated through previous years. In fact, small additions were made to the Life, Member¬ship and various other funds. It is highly desirable that such additions should continue to be made, especially to the Life Membership fund, for reasons reported last year. At present, money must be used from current receipts in order to enable the Institute to fulfill its obligations to those who on joining the organization commuted their dues by a single payment. In addition, with the passage of years the number increases of those who have paid dues forty years or more and who, by reason of age or dis¬ability, are unable longer to practise their profession. These men have supported the Institute through their active professional life and it would be a pity to lose them as members through resignation or for failure to keep up their dues. In accordance with the By-laws the Board has authority to advance such members, on application, to the Honor Roll of Senior Members and to relieve them from further payment of dues. It has been the policy of the Board to do this liberally, but to keep up this, as well as to meet other obligations, it is necessary for money to be provided. It has been estimated by the Treasurer that nearly $50,000 additional should be placed in the Life Membership fund as soon as possi¬ble to meet these obligations without using current income and to that end it is necessary, not only to avoid running behind currently but to earn, if possible, some surplus each year. The small amount transferred to the Life Membership fund from surplus this year was, as a matter of fact, made possible by certain members paying personally bills that were properly chargeable to the Treasury. Such generosity is common among those active in Institute work and probably no year would have closed with a surplus except for it.

Jan 1, 1923

By Charles White Merrill, James W. Pennington

No metallurgical process developed in the 20th century compares with froth flotation in its effect on the mineral industry. Processes like gravity - concentration, amalgamation, and pyrometallurgical reduction are of ancient origin; others like cyanidation and electrolytic reduction were well established by 1900. Such metallurgical processes as heavy-media separation, ion-exchange, and solvent extraction belong to this century, but their influence is small compared with froth flotation. Data collected by the U. S. Bureau of Mines* in a canvass of 202 froth flotation plants reveal that, in 1960, 198- million tons of material was treated to recover 20-million tons of concentrates which contained approximately $1 billion in recoverable products. SIGNIFICANCE OF FLOTATION Froth flotation as described in this chapter refers to a wet process for separating properly ground mineral particles into two or more products. It involves the separation of mineral particles from each other in a liquid pulp by means of air bubbles. Finely crushed ore is agitated in water with the addition of air or other gases. Various chemicals and oils are added to cause the selected mineral particles to attach themselves to the air or gas bubbles. These bubbles, carrying the mineral particles, rise to the surface where they are removed in a froth, while the other particles remain suspended in the pulp. The earliest flotation divided the raw material into two products: a bulk concentrate that was removed as a froth and a tailing that remained in the flotation machine. The froth usually contained the valuable constituents. The successful application of such a process depended on the recovery of a single concentrate from which one or more valuable constituents could be recovered by a chemical or smelting process. With the advance of the art, however, the principle of selective flotation, by which two or more relatively pure products could be recovered from complex raw materials, was evolved. Other chapters in this volume describe the developments during the last 50

Jan 1, 1962

By Kenneth Cottingham

The number of wells completed in Ohio during I940 was about 20 per cent more than during the preceding year, the comparative totals being 1020 and 1228. Of the 1940 completions, 327 were oil wells, 491 gas wells, and 410 dry. The completions for the past five years, divided into oil wells, gas wells, and dry holes, are shown in Table 2. Wells drilled deeper and input wells in water-flood areas are not included in the tabulation. The annual production of oil has decreased steadily in Ohio from the maximum of 23,941,000 bbl. produced in 1896. Table 3 shows the quantities of oil produced in the last five years. In 1940, the total was 3,052,000 bbl., produced by about 25,500 wells. The number of wells and the approximate quantities by grades are shown in Table I. Table i ,—Tabulation by Grade Grade 1 2 Barrels __________________________________________________________________________________________ Pennsylvania ............. . 1,198,000 Lima.................... . 325,000 Corning................... 3,730 1,159,000 Lodi...................... T,040 350,000 Cleveland................. 30 1:1,000 Total................... 25,500 3,052,000 The prices paid for Ohio crude oil in 1940, together with dates of changes in posting, are shown in Table 4. The production of natural gas in 0hio has declined from a maximum of 79,510,032 M cu. ft. in I9I5 S to 36,469,000 M cu. ft. in 1939, the most recent year for which a figure is available. Consumption reached its peak in Ohio in the year 1916, when it was 169,480,01r M cu. ft., declining to 114,720,ooo M CU. ft. in 1939. The produc-tion and consumption of natural gas in Ohio for the past five years are shown in Table 5. TAble 2.—Completions in Ohio during Past Five Years Numbs of Wells Drilled during Year YearI, ] Oil Gas Dry Total 1936............. 263 570 324 1,157 1937............. 317 503 45I 1,271 1938............. 189 433 288 gro 1939............. I70 501 349 1,020 19391940............. 327 491 410 1,228 Total.......... 1,266 2,498 1,822 5,586 Table 6 shows the number of oil wells and the number of gas wells completed by sands during 1940, with the average initial production per well for each sand. Table 7 shows the total number of wells drilled—oil, gas and dry—by sands. Development during 1940 Szth-Trenton.—For several years, considerahle interest has been shown in a horizon lying some 500 to 700 ft. below the top of the Trenton, known to the driller in western Ohio as the "green sand," and in eastern Ohio as the St. Peter. In 1939, ten 'lgreen sand" tests were drilled, all in western Ohio and all dry- In 19401 eight wells were drilled to this horizon, one of which was a small oil well (one barrel) in Men county- Of the remaining seven—all of which were dry-—one in Franklin County, in central Ohio, was drilled to a depth of 2903 ft. .Another was in Medina

Jan 1, 1941

By W. P. Sykes

SINCE Honda and Murakami1 in 1918 proposed their constitutional diagram of the carbon-free iron-tungsten system, considerable effort has been expended by several investigators in attempts to define more positively the structural features of the alloys. The existence of an intermediate phase corresponding to the formula Fe3W2 (68.7 per cent W) was proposed from evidence of a purely metallographic nature by one of the present authors2 in 1926. Since that time the identity of this phase has been confirmed by Arnfelt3 and by Takeda,4 both of whom employed X-ray methods as well as the microscope and the chemical analysis of isolated microconstituents. According to Arnfelt, Fe3W2, as crystallized from the iron-rich melts at a temperature above 1450'C., contains by analysis 68.7 per cent W. The lattice of this phase is characterized by trigonal symmetry. Arnfelt, moreover, proposed a second intermediate phase formed at some temperature between 1450° and 1000° C. by a peritectoid reaction involving Fe3W2 and the iron-rich solid solution. A melt containing 25 per cent W was cooled to 1000° C. and heated for. 100 hr. The precipitated tungsten-rich constituent was separated and found by analysis to contain 62.6 per cent W. This composition agrees closely with that represented by the formula Fe2W (62.2 per cent W). Diffraction patterns from the concentrated precipitate showed a hexagonal unit cell. Takeda confirmed the data of Arnfelt regarding Fe3W2 but was unable to detect Arnfelt's second intermediate phase. While Takeda. failed to describe in detail the treatments employed, he stated that in alloys containing 40 per cent W which were quenched after heating at various temperatures between 1200° and 1450° C., no evidence of the second phase (Fe2W) was observed either in the microstructure or in the diffraction patterns of isolated residues. He therefore considered the existence of this low-temperature hexagonal compound as disproved.

Jan 1, 1932

By G. S. Hume

Production of petroleum and natural .gas increased in Canada in 1940 over the previous year. Alberta produced more than 97 per cent of the total Canadian production of 8,718,053 bbl. of oil, an increase for this province of nearly 12 per cent, whereas in Ontario and New Brunswick, where the production is relatively small, there was a slight decline. In Alberta the main producing field is Turner Valley, on the eastern edge of the foothills southwest of Calgary, and development continued in this field in 1940 with the completion of 36 wells, all of which obtained production. In the Red Coulce field, close to the International Boundary, near Coutts, no new wells were drilled and the seven producing wells showed a decline of 900 bbl. below the previous year. Also, in the Wainwright field of east central Alberta, four wells, yielding heavy crude oil, produced 4000 bbl. less oil than in 1939, owing possibly rather to discontinuous operation than to actual decline in potential yield. This decline was more than offset by production from a new field 40 miles northeast of Wainwright, at Borradaile, producing oil of 14" to I 5° A.P.1. There was a small increase in production during 1940 from the Del Bonita field, in southern Alberta, where the production is from two wells. The outstanding development of the year was the completion of Standard Oil Princess No. 2 well in the Steveville area, on the Plains 100 miles east of Calgary. This well was completed late in December with an initial flow1 of 520 bbl. of 26.3" A.P,I. oil, and 12,750 M cu. ft. of gas from the upper part of the Mississippian limestone. It has opened up a new field and given a further proof of the potentialities of the Southern Plains. The production of petroleum in Canada is shown in Table I. Since most of the yield comes from Alberta, the production is shown from the various fields in Table 2. The sale value of the petroleum produced in Canada in 1940 exceeded 11.1 million dollars, which is still somewhat less than the value of the natural gas production, shown in Table 3. Table i.—Production of Petroleum in Canada" Barrels Province 1939 1940 New Brunswick........ 20,101 21,161 Ontario............... 206,196 186,471 Alberta............... 7,595,000 8,493,237 Northwest Territories. . 17,013 8,493,23717.184 Total............... 7,838,310 8,718,053 Value............... $10,353,351 $11.113,000 0 Bureau of Statistics, Ottawa. Turner Valley, Alberta Turner Valley continues to be by far the largest producing field in Canada (details are given in Table 4), The limits of the Pr in- field are now Known. On the east the oil area is bounded by the gas cap, which in turn is cut off on its east side by a major overthrust fault; on the west, ii is defined by edge water at a level of 4roc

Jan 1, 1941

By H. M. Morse

This report covers the period from Jan. I, 1943 to Dec. 31, 1943. During the year, II2 wells were drilled in Mississippi, as foilows: wildcats drilled and abandoned, 54; wildcats producing oil, 4; oil wells drilled in oil fields, 26; oil wells drilled in fields, dry and abandoned, 10; sulphur-test wells drilled, 14; salt-water-disposal wells, 3; core tests, I. Prospecting Geophysical work in Mississippi during 1943 amounted to 1127 crew weeks, divided as follows: reflection seismograph, 809 weeks; gravity meter, 285; magnotometer, 30; torsion balance, 3. A considerable amount of core drilling was done over a large part of the state. The complete data on this activity are not available at the present time. Salt Domes To date, the following salt domes have been discovered in Mississippi: Midway, Edwards, Glass, Newman, Tatum, Oak-vale, Kings, Halifax, D'Lo, Hazlehurst, Byrd, Leedo, Prentiss, Carson, Moselle, Monticello, Ruth, Keno, Taylorsville. New Oil Fields Lincoln County.—On March 10, 1943, the California Company completed its Smith No. I in sec. 4, T. 7 N., R. 7 E., Lincoln County, as an oil well and produced 29 bbl. of 25" gravity oil in 24 hr. through a fi-in. choke. Two outpost wells have been drilled in this area by the California Company, and both have been abandoned as dry holes. Madison County. —Love Petroleum Co. completed its J. R. Anderson No. 2, sec. 2, T. 8 N., R. I W., Madison County, on Sept. 7, 1943. This well produced 135 bbl. of approximately 30" gravity- oil in 24 hr. through a )/4-in. choke. The production comes from a sand or porosity in the upper part of the Chalk formation of the Cretaceous age. Adams County.—The California Company drilled its National Gasoline Co. of Louisiana No. I in sec. 52, T. 7 N., R. I W., to a total depth of 10,383 ft., and at 10,280 ft, it perforated and obtained gas and a condensate. The well had several showings in the Wilcox of the Eocene age. Several of these showings were tested and the well finally was completed at 5888 ft. on Oct. 6, 1943, producing 44" gravity oil in the second sand in this formation. No other wells were completed in this field during the year. However, a number of wells are contemplated in the near future, and locations have been staked by the California Company. The Oklahoma Pipe Line Co. will market the oil through its pipe-line facilities. Wayne County.—The Gulf Refining Co. drilled Davis No. I in sec. 2, T. 9 N., R. 9 W. in Wayne County. After several stem tests 545'-in. casing was set at 6850 ft. and production was obtained in the so-called Massive Sand of the Lower Tuscaloosa. The well produced 359 bbl. of oil in 24 hr., and it Was completed on Oct. 4, 1943. Other locations have been staked ill this area and probably will be drilled in 1944 by

Jan 1, 1944

By L. S. Richardson, N. J. Grant

REACTIONS of oxygen and nitrogen at low pressures with titanium have recently been studied by a number of investigators.1-3 Gulbransen and Andrew' noted that the reaction with nitrogen followed the parabolic rate law whereas the reaction with oxygen deviated slightly from this law in the temperature range 300° to 800°C. In the work reported here, commercial titanium (75 A) was used as the test material. Cylinders 2.5 in. long and 0.25 in. in diameter were machined from heavier bar stock. The test pieces were given a metallographic finish, immersed for 30 min in cold concentrated HC1, washed in water, then acetone, and dried with lint-free cloth. Reaction rates were determined in a modified Sieverts type apparatus by measuring the decrease in gas pressure of the reacting gas contained in a constant volume. The amount of gas added could be measured in a calibrated gas burette to an accuracy of 0.01 mm. During the course of a run the temperature never varied by more than 10°C and then only for brief moments. After placing the specimen in the furnace, the system was first evacuated for 12 hr at room temperature, and then flushed with purified argon five times, adsorbed gases being discharged during this period from the glass system with a high frequency spark coil. The flushing and discharging were repeated at 400°C. This rather involved procedure was found necessary after a number of trial runs indicated extraneous effects traceable to the system. Reaction periods up to 2 hr were used, at initial gas pressures of 0.2 to 0.5 atm. Experimental Results Fig. 1 shows the decrease in oxygen pressure for tests at 0.5 atm at various temperatures as a function of the square root of the time. Deviations from linearity are minor and the parabolic rate law is obeyed. Fig. 2 shows the same plot for the nitrogen reaction. A definite deviation from linearity is noted; however, it is probable that the higher initial rates are caused by the presence of small amounts of oxygen contamination, the initial faster rate changing to the slower rate after about 5 to 10 min. Calculations of the rate constants were made on the basis of the latter portion of the curves. The parabolic rate law constants calculated from these curves are shown for oxygen and nitrogen in Fig. 3. In spite of some scatter the average curves are quite definite. Changes in gas pressure of the order of 20 pct did not result in a measurable change in the rate law constants. The activation energy for the oxygen reaction was calculated to be 47,400 cal per mol (above 700°C), which is not in agreement with the value quoted by Gulbransen and Andrew' for lower temperatures, their value being 26,000 cal below 600°C. The activation energy for the nitrogen reaction was calculated to be 45,400 cal per mol above about

Jan 1, 1955

By L. E. Young

LOADING machines may be classified in several ways: (1) Machines which cut or break down and load .the coal; (2) machines which simply load the coal; (3) devices which load and transport the coal; (4) de-vices which elevate; (5) devices which transport the coal after it has been shoveled onto the device. There are many types of mechanical loading devices, Bull. 17, Coal Mining Investigations, under the auspices of Carnegie Institute' of Technology, U. S. Bureau of Mines, and the Advisory Board, listing 31 exclusive. of -the large shovels used in thick coal seams. Mechanical loading of coal is not in its infancy; I think some of the early patents go back to 1890. One large coal company, properly called the early leader in this field of mechani-zation, has about 26 large machines at work. This company spent about thirty years in developing a ma-chine, and at the present time is loading approximately two million tons of coal a year in its mines. The chair-man directed a question at the previous speaker; inquir-ing if real progress was being made in mechanical load-ing. The experience of the company just referred to is in itself an adequate answer. A review of a list of mines using mechanical loading devices shows that there are 28 mines which we may say are 100 per cent mechanical. There are four more mines which have been 100 per cent mechanical, but which are idle at this time on account of labor condi-tions. There are at least 25 more at which the tonnage is more than 50 per cent mechanical. In speaking of a 100 per cent mine I do not mean that every pit car of coal is loaded by machine, because when complete, re-covery of the coal is attempted it is not practical to load all the coal at, the break line. In order to load the last 5 to 10 per cent of coal with a minimum of gob material and in order to keep the. working places along the break line timbered in a safe manner it is generally desirable to use a few hand loaders. At a certain mine operat-ing on the block system 90 percent of the coal is being loaded by what is properly a mechanical loading: device, and about 10 per cent -is being loaded by hand. This 10 percent is right off the break line, out of what might be called, the screen pillar. The mines referred to are scattered over the country, . in seven different' States, and the equipment used is produced by ten different machinery companies. As to size, these mines vary from small mines of 500 tons mining capacity-up. In one instance a company with one loading machine is producing an, average of 450 tons per day. One of the large mines that is idle pro-duced at the. rate of 4300 tons per day, of which 97 per cent was actually loaded by machinery.

Jan 8, 1928