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An evaluation was made of the wear and performance characteristics of liter bars, and the cost-life effectiveness of backing materials for rotary-mil liners. In a large run-of-mine mil in which the liter bars were mounted on grid liners of austenitic manganese steel (AMS), the liners had an average life that was five to six times that of equivalent unprotected liners. For a single mil, this is equivalent to annual savings in the cost of materials of up to R320 000, and to a downtime of 100 hours. Of the five materials tested in a large pebble mil grinding quartzitic ore, AMS grids and 'white iron' blocks performed best on a cost-life basis, with possibly improved performance from a real white cast iron. (The 'white iron' was shown by microstructural analysis to contain flake raphite and pearlite, being in reality a grey cast iron.) The high-chromium white iron had by far the longest predicted life, with mild steel a surprising second. Rubber was shown to last well in this type of mil. The wear rates of liners change during their lifetimes. The protective effect of liter bars was clearly illustrated by the reduction of over 40 per cent in the wear rates of the liners when the lifter bars were renewed to a height of 80 mm from a fully worn height of 35 mm.

Jan 1, 1991

By P. A. Botha

The production of iron and steel generates various types of waste materials containing oxides, carbon, and flux material. Usually, these materials are land-filled at the plant site or are hauled away for disposal. Some of these waste materials are hazardous, and they must therefore be recycled or disposed of properly. The influence of different waste materials in iron-ore sinter blends on the quality and operational parameters in sinter production is described. The recycling of waste materials such as dolochar, scrap fines, mill scale, electric-arc furnace slag, basic-oxygen-furnace mud via the sintering process can achieve a saving in the cost of the raw materials (for example, fuels and flux) and a reduction in pollution. A comparison of a typical sinter with a sinter produced through the utilization of waste materials shows a distinct correlation between certain types of waste material and some metallurgical properties and operational parameters. Dolochar (and arc-furnace slag) in a sinter blend acts as part of the fuel and flux that are normally added to a sinter mix. In general, dolochar improves the quality of the sinter and decreases the consumption of coke. Other waste materials adversely influence the quality of the sinter, but not necessarily the operational parameters such as the production rate. At Vanderbijlpark, approximately 15 kt of various waste materials per month are successfully recycled in the sinter plant. Investigations into the handling and recycling of other waste materials may indicate that even more waste materials can be utilized.

Jan 1, 1993

By L. G. Snyman

"South Africa is well endowed with a plethora of valuable minerals, as well as being of world renown for its significant ecological and cultural resources. The unfortunate reality is that these two important attributes often come into collision when developmental decisions are made. Robust environmental planning tools are required to guide such development in areas of heightened sensitivity. Environmental management frameworks are one of the tools that can attempt to achieve the desired developmental and ecological balance by utilizing early identification and mapping of sensitive ecosystems and resources to assist in pre-empting potential future land use conflicts. This paper unpacks the characteristics of environmental management frameworks and further investigates their potential, as well as its current design and implementation challenges. The findings show that environmental management frameworks have the potential to provide meaningful resource information to decision-makers on the opportunities and risks of developments in sensitive areas. They further provide a platform and process through which local stakeholders can voice their opinions and collectively drive the developmental priorities of the identified area.IntroductionAt the core of a harmonious and prosperous society is the balancing of a broad spectrum of needs, rights, and imperatives. As South Africa’s resource and energy needs expand, it becomes increasingly important to safeguard environmental rights and ensure sustainable development through creative measures. The State’s drive for accelerated development to meet the targets in the National Development Plan 2030 is contributing to the growth of invasive developments in previously undeveloped areas. The unfortunate reality is that the heightened tensions between rapid economic growth and environmental sustainability are threatening sensitive areas."

Jan 1, 2017

By M. Coetzee

The susceptibility of experimental low-nickel Cr-Mn-N stainless steels to hot cracking, sensitization, and pitting corrosion in the as-welded condition was investigated. These steels were developed for deep-drawing applications and are similar in composition to type 201 stainless steel. In order to obtain good formability, the rapid rate of work-hardening (characteristic of the 200-series steels) was decreased by the addition of copper. The behaviour of two sets of alloys during fusion welding was investigated: 17Cr-7Mn-4Ni-o.5Cu steels containing 0.001 to 0.27 per cent nitrogen, and 17Cr-7Mn-2Ni-o.1N steels with copper contents varying between 0.01 and 3.11 per cent. Al the steels in these two sets initially solidify as d-ferrite, which transforms partially to austenite during cooling. As the nitrogen level increases, the microstructure of an autogenous-weld metal ranges from large amounts of d -ferrite, martensite, and Widmanstätten austenite, to austenitic structures with small amounts of vermicular d -ferrite. The formation of d -ferrite during solidification and the presence of ferrite retained in the weld metal indicate that the experimental alloys will not be susceptible to hot cracking during welding. Except for the alloy with 0.27 per cent nitrogen, the resistance to pitting corrosion of the experimental steels in the as-welded condition is inferior to that of type 304 stainless steel. None of the experimental steels is susceptible to intergranular attack in the as welded condition. The alloys with 0.19 and 0.27 per cent nitrogen have properties (corrosion and microstructure) similar to those of type 304 stainless steel in the as-welded condition.

Jan 1, 1996

By W van Drunick, S Naik

To date, Anglo Research has carried out several projects, based on the techniques developed in the AMIRA P9 (AMIRA International Limited), to develop comminution and flotation models for several Anglo Base Metals and, to a lesser degree, Anglo Platinum flotation plants. Plant optimization is thus achieved through steady-state sampling, model-fitting and simulation using the JK SimMet and JK SimFloat software packages. The surveys can vary depending on the needs of the plant/client. The survey can therefore include as little as a single piece of equipment, an entire milling/flotation circuit, or a complete circuit from primary comminution to final flotation concentrate (i.e. the ?integrated survey?). The presence of the AR team on-site usually precipitates in face-value observations that can lead to initial improvements. This stems from the knowledge-sharing on best practice that exists in parallel with the surveys. Numerous (reasonable) changes can then be simulated, thus indicating the optimization step most likely to result in the best efficiency improvements. The simulations can include changes in the flowsheet, ore characteristics, mill loads, grinding media size, change in grind, flotation residence time, air hold-up and several more. Plant surveys can result in process changes that provide the plant with either: higher plant tonnage, improved plant grind, additional flotation recovery and/or improved product grade. The additional benefit of performing an integrated plant survey is that the effects of an optimization change in the comminution circuit can be simulated using the flotation model. This paper describes a number of case studies where individual and integrated plant surveys were conducted by AR for Anglo Base Metals.

Jan 1, 2007

By C. O. Beale

This paper is the first part of a two-part review on the subject. , , .. Here reference is made to the place of copper among the elements, Its properties, Its historical significance, and its 'end uses both in general and in South Africa. Its current market situation and its prospects are dealt with briefly. Some account is then given of the mining and metallurgical techniques employed. in South Africa in the production of copper, together with the names of the companies at present Involved and brief descriptions of their operations, ,... . .. The operations of these companies are described In greater detail In Part 11(Apn11985 Issue of the Journal).

Jan 1, 1985

The optimization of sample spacing In South African gold mines by J. M. RENDU*, Eng. Se.D., M.S. (Min.) U.S.A. (Graduate Member) A first attempt is made at optimization of sample spacing in South African gold mines. The De Wijs model, which is shown to give a good representation of the geostatistical properties of gold values, is used to analyse the influence of the distance between samples along a stope face on the error of estimation of the stope value. The influence of other factors such as the face advance before resampling, the sample density, and the stope size, is also considered. Practical conclusions are drawn concerning the optimum sampling policy to be followed in various situations, and it is shown that sampling on a regular grid does not necessarily give the best results.

Jan 4, 1976

By S. Maluadzi, D. Rocchi, S. Luyckx, S. S. Potgieter-Vermaak, C. Machio, J. H. Potgieter

The aim of this work was to compare the corrosion behaviour of thermal spray WC ? based coatings before and after annealing. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to determine the phases present in the coatings at various stages. The corrosion resistance of the coatings was measured using electrochemical and immersion corrosion tests. The results obtained from electrochemical corrosion (quantified by corrosion current density) and immersion corrosion tests showed that annealing appears to decrease the corrosion resistance of the coatings. From the XRD results it was determined that the phases that corroded preferentially were cobalt (Co), eta (Co6W6C) and W2C. Keywords: Corrosion, thermal spray, coatings, hardmetals.

Jan 1, 2006

By G. Whittle

An important aspect of the project evaluation process is the achievement of a clear and quantitative understanding of the primary drivers influencing project value and risk. A business scenario-based approach is required to ensure that the project meets value and risk hurdles over the short, medium and longer term. Adopting an optimising approach can aid significantly in the development of a project concept into a business that is optimal and sustainable in the longer term. Through the application of case studies, based on work performed with various mining organisations during the last five years, this paper will demonstrate how project value and robustness can be optimised. Experience has demonstrated that applying this approach results in significant value improvements and risk reduction - primarily by application of a rigorous, fact-based analysis and optimisation process that rapidly increases management team understanding and insight of key driver of value and risk.

Jan 1, 2007

By D. F. Sinclair

It is often said in business that if you don't have a customer you don't have a business. The same rule applies to project evaluation; if you don't have customers you really don't have a viable project. It is therefore essential that in the early stages of project evaluation the following fundamental questions are addressed: ? What products will this project produce? ? Who are the potential customers? ? What are the customers' requirements with respect to grade and impurities? ? Do they have adequate capacity to take the production from the proposed project? ? Will the products introduce adverse effects in the customer's process circuits? ? Will additional waste streams requiring disposal be produced? In the past the attitude has been along the lines of the customer will take whatever we produce at the mine site. Times have now changed with customers now operating under much tighter environmental regulation with waste disposal becoming increasingly difficult. It would therefore be prudent that the principles of product stewardship be used as a tool in project evaluation. This paper will provide a general discussion on customer requirements and provide detail on case studies of the impact of mine products on smelter process circuits. It will provide examples where there were synergies between the mine product and the smelter circuit and where the mine product had adverse impacts on smelter performance.

Jan 1, 2007

Rock fall accidents continue to be the main causes of fatalities in the mining industry. The occurrence of rock falls in supported stopes implies a failure of the support system. The failure of the support system in turn implies a failure in design. In this paper, ethical issues associated with engineering design are discussed, with particular relevance to stope support design. A risk approach is introduced that will allow designs to be carried out that are compatible with the acceptable risk defined by the mining company management. The implementation of this approach would overcome the ethical shortcomings of current support design practices.

Jan 1, 2007

By S. Curry

The Objana Cement Plant is located in central Nigeria, approximately 200km south of capital city Abuja (figure 1). It is the second largest cement plant in Africa, and the fifth largest in the world [1]. The selected mining location is unique as it has all the major raw materials (except gypsum) in close proximity. This includes limestone, clay, marl, laterite soil, and laterite iron. [ ] The plant has a capacity of 5 million metric tones per year (~15,000 tones per day). A 135 megawatt gas-fired power plant, with 90 km of natural gas pipeline, was constructed to power the plant. The total project cost is approximately 1.2 billion US dollars. The lifeline of the plant is two overland conveys totalling 7.7km in length. The first 800m conveyor is relatively mundane. The second conveyor however, is unlike any other troughed belt conveyor in the world. It 6.9km length transports 2,400 T/H and operates at 5.0 m/s. Its ?snake? profile consists of 11 vertical cuvees, and four horizontal curves. The last of which is 2,000m in radius, has a length of 2.2km, and is located at the high tension head end of the conveyor. Although these specifications are noteworthy, the unique feature of this system is that it is entirely elevated from head to tail using a triangulated truss gantry structure (figure 2).

Jan 1, 2008

By Lene Hansen

Sulphuric acid plants now and then see unexpected increases in SO2 emissions. Our experience is that it is not always easy for the acid plants to pin point the exact reason for the SO2 increase. Sometimes a catalyst bed is sacrificed even though reliable emperature readings and gas analyses could have verified satisfactory activity, hence the leaking heat exchanger is never discovered and after the shutdown the SO2 emissions are still too high. This paper will look into some basic catalyst management tools: Good record keeping is a necessity for collection of representative catalyst samples, reliable operating data is an inevitable starting point for all analysis and trending of operating data is a must for plant optimisation and troubleshooting. In addition these catalyst management tools will give a continuous updated knowledge of the catalyst status in each bed providing the basis for a more effective replacement strategy. The most typical reasons for increasing SO2 emissions will be presented together with easy guidelines for cross-checking of operating data, temperature optimisation and good record keeping.

Jan 1, 2009

By R. D. Cromarty, J. Du Toit

"Penetration of matte into tap-hole bricks causes detrimental refractory wear, which can lead to furnace breakouts. The ability of the tap-hole clay to form a protective layer on the brick, thereby limiting matte penetration was investigated by examining the interaction between platinum group metal (PGM) matte, tap-hole clay, and alumina-chrome refractory bricks on a laboratory scale.Samples containing clay and brick as well as samples containing clay, brick, and matte were heated to different temperatures to establish the clay-brick interaction and the extent of matte penetration. The greatest degree of physical contact between the brick and clay was achieved at curing temperatures of 600°C. Poor clay-brick contact was observed in the sample that was heated to 900°C.Matte displaced the clay in the clay-brick-matte sample that was heated to 1350°C, with significant matte penetration into the brick. Less matte penetration was observed when the clay-brick-matte sample was heated to 1500°C. Less matte penetration was also observed in the claybrick- matte sample in which the clay and brick were pre-baked at 800°C, and the sample then reacted with matte at 1350°C. IntroductionFloatation concentrate from ore from the eastern Bushveld Complex of South Africa, specifically the Platreef, Merensky, and UG2 reefs, forms the feed to the Polokwane platinum smelter (Hundermark, De Villiers, and Ndlovu, 2006). The ore from the UG2 Reef has a high chromite content, which requires high operating temperatures (1500–1700°C) to avoid chromium spinel build-up in the furnace hearth. These high operating temperatures lead to matte superheats in the vicinity of 500– 600°C, which put increased demands on the refractory materials (Nelson et al., 2005).Upon tapping, the matte moves through the tap-hole, which consists of an aluminachrome refractory brick-lined tapping channel (Hundermark, De Villiers, and Ndlovu, 2006). The flow of molten matte is stopped by the injection of tap-hole clay to form a plug in the tap-hole. The tap-hole clay hardens and strengthens during curing to obtain the required hardness and refractoriness against penetration, corrosion and erosion (Nelson and Hundermark, 2014)."

Jan 1, 2016

The Water Year Office for South Africa has supplied a provisional list of scientific congresses and meetings due to be held during 1970 with "Water" as the main or secondary theme, as follows: February: SARCCUS conference on "Water for Progress," Lourenco Marques. March 16-20: Annual Congress, Institute for Water Pollution Control, Cape Town. May: Possible S.A. Akademie conference on Cooling Tower Experiments, Pretoria. May: Annual Meeting of Association of Municipal Electricity Undertakings, Potchefstroom. May 27-29: Congress on "Water Resources of Natal", Durban. June 29/July 4: Annual Congress, South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Cape Town. July 2: Joint meeting of South African Association for the Advancement of Science and S.A. Akademie, Stellenbosch. July: Winter School, Federation of University Engineering Students. July: Youth Science Week. Foundation for Education, Science and Technology. July 21-24: The South African Tunneling Conference. September: Proposed SARCCUS conference on water in Nature Conservation, Skukuza. November 16-20: International Convention on "Water for the Future", Pretoria.

By R. H. Matjie, J. R. Bunt, C. A. Strydom

"A number of conventional and advanced analytical techniques (proximate and ultimate analysis, low-temperature oxygen-plasma ashing, X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, coal petrography, and lightelement electron microprobe analysis) have been integrated and crosschecked to provide detailed characterization of coals from the Highveld coalfield in South Africa, as a basis for better understanding of the mineralogical and chemical properties of the individual coal sources that are blended as feedstocks for combustion and carbon conversion processes. The techniques included methods to quantify the abundance and composition of the mineral matter (minerals and non-mineral inorganic elements), and also the abundance and chemical composition of the individual macerals in the individual coals concerned.Kaolinite is the most abundant of the minerals in the coals studied, with lesser but still significant proportions of quartz, mica and/or illite, dolomite, calcite, and pyrite. Small but variable proportions of anatase, goyazite, and siderite are present in some coal samples. Electron microprobe analysis, based on a special configuration for light-element study, shows that the vitrinite contains less carbon and more oxygen, and has significantly higher concentrations of nitrogen and organic sulphur, than the inertinite macerals in the same samples. Minor proportions of organically-associated inorganic elements, including titanium, were also identified in some of the maceral components.A comprehensive knowledge of the minerals and non-mineral inorganic elements in the coals used for feedstock preparation, obtained by integration of data from these advanced analytical techniques with more conventional analyses, may be of benefit in understanding the processes that take place during coal utilization, and also in avoiding or ameliorating some of the operational and environmental problems that may occur in different sectors of the coal utilization industry."

Jan 1, 2016

"Chairman: Professor B. W. MacKenzieRapporteur: Professor D. A. PretoriusPapers:Optimum spacing for soil sample traverses by W. A. HodgsonEvaluation of geochemical data by C. J. LenzResearch in oil exploration decision-making by J. W. Harbaugh and A. Prelat A drill hole data bank by M. R. AndertonOre reserve estimation and depletion planning for a beach diamond deposit by M. M. OosterveldIn opening the session, the Chairman indicated that the papers and discussions would revolve about quantitative methods of analysis and optimization of various aspects of exploration planning. The five papers would cover a wide range of topics within a general theme of exploration analysis, and it would be appropriate, therefore, to present the. papers as representing a sequential information-gathering process, namely, (i)geochemical and geophysical types of surveying for the location and identification of anomalous zones, (ii) tren¬ching and drilling of the anomalous zones found, and (iii) further refinement of the data for ore reserve calculations and production planning.The first paper, which was presented by Dr W. A. Hodgson, dealt with the optimum spacing between soil sample traverses conducted during geochemical prospecting. The theme of the paper was that the critical sampling interval should be based on the concept of element continuity, and that this interval could be determined by means of a correlogram. Ensuing discussion concerned the probability of the method, designed for areas where dispersion was high, working in localities where dispersion was either low or virtually non-existent. In the latter eases, specific orientation surveys for varying topographic, climatic and geological conditions would possibly be more useful than the preparation of correlograms. A further suggestion was made that cost versus risk should be taken into consideration when deciding upon the spacing between traverses. A balance could be struck by mathematical optimization. If the exploration budget was fixed, then the variance of risk could be minimized.The second paper was a short contribution by Mr C. J. Lenz. Computer-based plotting and evaluation of geochemical prospecting results were carried out because the low cost of analysis in Rhodesia permitted very large volumes of data to be accumulated in mass-coverage operations. Anomalous areas were demarcated within different environments by selecting probability or population boundary values from frequency distributions. In the short discussion which took place it was debated whether the method should be used only in the early high-risk stages of geochemical exploration and whether the introduction of geological bias could influence the actual results of an exploration program."

Jan 1, 2014

By D. Rankin, H. J. Stucke, W. K. B. Loftus

SYNOPSIS Planning for the Finsch opencast mine is described with particular reference to the proposed stages of mining, the method used to determine the limits of surface waste rock stripping and the derivation of the waste rock mining rate. Actual mining practice is described and the possibility of installing a skipway into the open mine at a later date is discussed. In addition, the waste dumping policy is referred to: this includes the cutting of slots through the hill on the west side of the pipe to increase tramming speeds. The crushing, washing and recovery sections of the treatment plant are described together with the various changes being made to the circuit. The most important of these are the installation of X-ray sorters for the final recovery of + 7 mesh diamonds, and the vibrating grease belt for the recovery of - 7 mesh diamonds. INTRODUCTION The Finsch Mine, a subsidiary of De Beers Consolidated Mines, Limited, is situated approximately 90 miles west of Kimberley, and some two miles from the village of Lime Acres, in the Northern Cape. Lime Acres is a company village shared with the Northern Lime Company which operates a limestone quarry and works near the township. The mine is near the southern end of a well mineralized belt producing limestone, asbestos, diamonds, manganese and iron ore, and the whole area has developed rapidly in the last 20 years. Power for mining operations is drawn from the Electricity Supply Commission. The mine is conveniently close to the main Kimberley-Postmasburg railway line. Water is drawn from the Vaal River through a 57 mile State-owned pipeline at present temporarily operated by mine staff. DISCOVERY AND PROSPECTING OPERATIONS The diamondiferous orebody is situated on the farm Brits, which is State-owned ground that has been leased to the Company for the period of mining operations. There are indications of interest in the area by prospectors (Richter, de Bruin and others) over a period of some 30 years and the discovery would possibly have been made years earlier but for a law preventing prospecting for precious stones on State-owned land. Although the pipe formed a clear depression on the hill where it was situated, it was overlain by some 5 to 40 ft of banded ironstone rubble which was washed into the depression from the hillside above the pipe and obscured the deposit. In 1958, Mr Allister Thornton Fincham applied for, and was granted, the right to prospect for base minerals on the farm Brits. Asbestos is known to occur in the area and, initially, was Mr Fincham's primary interest. However, during the prospecting operations, garnets were discovered and it was realised that diamonds might be present. In 1960, when the Precious Stones Amendment Act was passed, a company

By M. E. C. Snyman, N. Naudé

"Coal fines produced during processing are difficult to dewater and result in a lower quality product and consequent lower value. A South African coal mine experiences severe difficulties with belt filter dewatering operations due to the presence of fines reporting from the thickener underflows. Plant 2 currently handles super-fine particles of size -34 µm and has low belt filter efficiency: excessive moisture retention lowers the product quality and strains downstream processing. It was necessary to determine an alternative method for dewatering these fines. Blending of fine material with coarser material was proposed as a solution. The effect of coal particle size and layering during ultrafines belt filter dewatering was evaluated using various blends of the fine Plant 2 material with coarser Plant 1 material. The best layering arrangement of the two materials and its optimum blend required to achieve reduced filter cake moisture content was determined in practise using a vacuum filter to simulate belt filtration. A blend of the two materials gave improved dewatering efficiency for the belt filters compared with that of the Plant 2 material alone. The best layering configuration was with Plant 2 material at the bottom and Plant 1 material on top. The optimum blend for industrial applications comprised 48% fines from Plant 2. IntroductionFines are produced during the processing of coal. It is estimated that 2 to 3% of run-ofmine coal reports to the ultrafine portion (-100 µm) (le Roux, 2005). The particle size of coal is inversely proportional to the amount of water adsorption, so smaller particles adsorb more moisture. Moisture removal requires either mechanical processes or thermal drying: mechanical processes are less expensive, but the fines still have high moisture retention. Discarding of fines leads to economic losses, so it is essential that they be dewatered so that they can then be sold as a product: fines need to be treated for both resource management and conservation reasons (Kenney, 1994). Removal of free surface moisture from ultrafine coal particles using a belt filter therefore remains a process that needs to be continuously improved. Ultrafine coal originating from a thickener underflow is known to be difficult to dewater owing to factors such as filter cloth blockage and moisture retention due to clogging. Mixing of finer and coarser materials has been proposed to deliver better dewatering efficiency and improved the quality of the recycled water (Kenney, 1994)."

Mar 1, 2019

By S. Kauchali, J. van Dyk, J. Feris, S. Pershad, M. van der Riet, D. Love, J. Brand, C. A. Strydom

"This paper offers an introduction to and strategic context for the other papers included in this special UCG edition of the Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. South Africa is facing long-term energy security challenges, brought about by a myriad of factors that are somewhat unique or exacerbated in the global context. Underground coal gasification (UCG) is a process used to produce synthesis gas from coal in situ, that is, in the coal seam. UCG is an emerging, advanced clean coal technology that offers a potential solution for these challenges, as it can cost-effectively and cleanly liberate vast coal resources in the country that currently cannot be economically exploited using traditional mining technologies. One of the tasks of the South African Underground Coal Gasification Association (SAUCGA) is to advance the development of UCG in South Africa by compiling a technology roadmap. This paper presents the initial findings of the SAUCGA Roadmap (Draft), and contextualizes the technology opportunities and challenges, stakeholders, and provides a basis from which to progress further plans for technology development. Firm development plans and deadlines are not yet possible due to the reliance of the UCG Roadmap on the higher level South African energy policy and regulatory framework. However, the draft roadmap has taken the first step of identifying these policies and stakeholders, and should be seen as the seed from which this embryonic technology and industry can be further developed. IntroductionSouth Africa’s long-term energy security challenges include energy access and affordability, dwindling reserves of accessible bulk primary energy, mounting environmental concerns with all forms of energy generation (especially coal and nuclear), balancing the electricity grid by incorporating an increasing proportion of non-despatchable renewable energy sources, mounting environmental liabilities regarding defunct mining operations, and lastly but by no means less important, fluctuating exchange rates and energy commodity prices.Correctly managed underground coal gasification (UCG) is an emerging, advanced clean coal technology that offers a potential solution for these challenges, as it has been shown to have the potential to cost-effectively and cleanly liberate vast coal resources in the country that currently cannot be economically exploited using traditional mining technologies."

Jan 1, 2019