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By Arash Khosravifar, Matt Steffan

An expansion of the City of Klamath Falls Wastewater Treatment plant required geotechnical seismic hazard evaluations and deep foundation design. The site is located on the shore of Lake Ewauna and is underlain by diatom rich lake deposits. Diatomaceous soils exhibit unique engineering properties that are not well understood. Cyclic Direct Simple Shear (CDSS) testing was performed on three undisturbed samples to evaluate cyclic and post-cyclic properties of the diatomaceous soils. Results from the CDSS testing indicated that the soils would not liquefy in the classical sense, though cyclic softening behavior was observed. The CDSS results were used to develop a Cyclic Resistance Ratio curve for the diatomaceous soil to compare with clean sand liquefaction curves. Seismic lateral pile capacities were developed using two approaches. One approach used conventional p-multipliers for liquefied soil and modified them to reflect expected excess pore pressure ratios. The other approach applied residual strength and fifty percent strain values from post-cyclic monotonic shear testing. A lateral spread hazard zone was identified along the Lake shoreline and reduced, seismic lateral pile capacities were recommended. The objective of this paper is to report the seismic design considerations for this project in a unique geologic and seismic setting. INTRODUCTION The engineering properties of diatomaceous soils have rarely been studied and the cyclic behavior under seismic loading is generally unknown. Some of the critical geotechnical uncertainties of diatomaceous behavior include potential for large consolidation settlement, influence of irrecoverable strains due to diatom particle crushing, shear strength (peak and residual), and cyclic properties. This paper presents results of cyclic shear testing, seismic evaluations and seismic lateral pile design in diatomaceous soils performed for the expansion of a waste water treatment plant in the city of Klamath Falls, Oregon, site of the largest recorded earthquake in Oregon’s history. The expansion consisted of adding six new facilities at the existing Plant including influent pump station (IPS) and headworks, aeration basin, tertiary treatment, and other buildings. The IPS/headworks and aeration basin will be founded approximately 15 feet below ground. The other buildings will be founded at grade. The existing facilities are supported by timber piles that penetrate the surficial diatomaceous soils and terminate on a hard underlying deposit. Figure 1 shows the site plan and proposed additions.

Jan 1, 2018

By Hal W. Hunt

Heavier loading and more efficient equipment is helping to keep driven piles competitive in America. Better Knowledge and testing of soils and support materials make it practical to use higher stresses; this is being strongly promoted by those directly concerned with timber, steel and concrete piles. Readily available point protection is increasingly used to assure penetration of piles without damage to full load bearing capability. Fabric drains are being installed with pile equipment to speed consolidation of soils. Sheet pile configuration has changed; production has been reduced largely because of imports. Dynamic checking of representative piles for load carrying capability is replacing conventional load testing of just a pile or two ? at much lower cost.

Jan 1, 1987

By Raymond J. Castelli

The paper provides a general overview of the numerous types of earth retaining systems currently available, and organizes these various systems by several classification methods. These classifications can be used as a guide in identifying the appropriate type wall or walls for any specific project application. As a further aid in sorting through the numerous wall alternatives for a specific design or construction project application, the paper suggests a systematic approach for wall selection, and presents helpful charts summarizing the general advantages and disadvantages, and typical limitations for the currently available wall systems.

Jan 1, 2003

By Federico Pagliacci, Marco Chiarabelli, Salvatore Miranda

The paper describes the adopted technologies and performance controls related to a special geotechnical engineering solution provided within the scope of the Galataport Project, in Istanbul, Turkey. The scheme is the one applied to the new quay of Salipazari, which is a combination of retaining structure and ground improvement, formed by a combi-wall, a reinforced concrete diaphragm wall and a soil improvement by deep soil mixing (Turbojet). The paper highlights the importance of employing cutting-edge technologies within the foundation engineering field and state-of-the-art electronic control devices, in parallel with the essential human expertise, in order to obtain the desired results in this high profile Project. The results of the in-situ and laboratory tests carried out on the improved soil are also presented. Main discussed points are: • History of Galataport and main Project details. • Design principle and soil condition for the new quay of Salipazari. • Difficulties encountered during execution of DSM. • Preliminary field trial tests conducted to establish the operational parameters, with relevant in-situ and laboratory tests executed. • Preliminary tests on material used for DSM (seawater and CEM IV SR). • Electronic equipment mounted on the rig, which allows the automatic execution of DSM columns. • Final QA/QC tests conducted to verify the performance of DSM, mainly consisting in: coring with relevant laboratory tests on samples (UCS + Es), seismic refraction tomography and seismic cross hole tomography. Correlations between UCS and Es, and between Es and Edyn are also presented. • A cross section of the executed treatment could be inspected on site during excavation. Photos and considerations are also presented.

Jan 1, 2018

By Joram M. Amir, Ernst Niederleithinger, Nikolaus Schneider

"Abstract: Diaphragm walls are used to provide a stable and watertight confinement for the construction of tunnels, underground railway stations, deep basements and other structures requiring deep excavations. Water seepage and soil loss through the joints have occurred on several occasions, causing extensive damage. This may have been due to uncontrolled concrete flow between the joints, unexpected geologic conditions or just poor workmanship.Different ways of quality assurance are applied on construction sites. Most of them rely on recording parameters of the construction equipment and conventional concrete quality control. In the frame of the EUREKA/ZIM project DiWaQ we have looked at several ways to perform non-destructive quality control. Some methods are to be applied after excavation before concreting (phase 1); others after the wall is completed (phase 2).For phase 1 we have used two different principles for checking the shape of the excavation, especially the joint to existing panels. A mechanical device which can be adapted to the excavating equipment was developed; field tested and validated on test and construction sites. It is described in detail in another paper in the same volume. A sonar-based device with a 10 mm resolution has shown good performance in the lab, but is still under development.For phase 2 different temperature sensors have been lowered into access holes to monitor the hydration heat developed during concrete curing. The same tubes can also be used to perform electromagnetic and ultrasonic crosshole measurements across or along joints to detect flaws. Especially the ultrasonic method has shown promising results on validation specimen at the BAM test site at Horstwalde, but limitations as well. Success substantially depended on the joint type, flaw size and distance of the sensors to the joint."

Jan 1, 2014

By Stanley A. Schwartz

In the Piedmont, heavily loaded structures are generally supported by either drilled piers or one of several pile types. The choice of drilled piers or piles is typically one of comparative costs. The cost of a drilled pier foundation is usually the more difficult to predict because of the greater impact that variable conditions and construction monitoring have on cost. Poor specifications, related to the drilling equipment, procedures and bearing level, can also result in large cost extras. In the southern Piedmont, straight shafts are typically extended down to hard rock to achieve primary support in end-bearing: when bells are required, they are often constructed manually. In some eastern and northern Piedmont locations the thickness of the decompossed rock zone is significant and considerable skin friction can be mobilized. Typically piers are constructed in holes temporarily cased with steel liners. The bottom is cleaned of loose material and water, and then evaluated by a geotechnical engineer to confirm the design bearing pressure (and friction, where appropriate) or recommend alternative construction measures.

Jan 1, 1988

By Frederick C. Rhyner

This paper describes the design and construction of two high-capacity rock anchors to restrain a supplementary backstay for the Bear Mountain Bridge, which is a suspension bridge spanning the Hudson River about 40 miles north of New York City. The supplementary backstay was installed to relieve a portion of the tension in the southern main cable, which had been creeping in recent years. The two new rock anchors were 1,200 kip capacity each, installed at a batter to depths of 59 feet. This paper describes the subsurface investigation, group capacity analysis, installation and load testing. The rock anchors included strain gages connected to the monitoring system for the bridge. The paper describes the long term strain gage data which shows no change in stress distribution in either anchor.

Jan 1, 2010

By Gary L. Seider

Helical screw piles are used in various applications including the underpinning of distressed foundations and as deep foundations for new structures. At present, maximum design loads range between 12.5 and 50 tons. Helical piles installed with in-situ grouting of the central steel shaft are a relatively new type of deep foundation, which have extended the present maximum design loads to the 100-ton range. Vickars & Clemence discussed this new foundation system in a paper presented at GEO-Denver 2000 in Denver, CO. Over the past three years, grouted shaft helicals have been used successfully on remedial and new construction projects all across North America. The authors have studied several construction projects in a variety of soil conditions to compile a list of practical design guidelines. Those guidelines include installability of grouted shaft helicals based on soil type, equipment requirements, grout selection, and theoretical vs. actual load capacity. In a number of cases, full-scale, field load tests were conducted in both granular and cohesive soils and the results broken down between tip resistance on the helix bearing plates and friction resistance on the grouted shaft. Data is presented which will further efforts to develop a design model and method to accurately predict the axial and lateral capacity of grouted shaft helicals.

Jan 1, 2003

By Seffen Leppla, Rolf Katzenbach, Matthias Seip

"Abstract The economic and safe design of deep foundation systems in difficult soil conditions is based on a reduction of construction material used, construction time spent, energy consumed and a high-level modelling of the soil-structure-interaction. The special foundation system Combined Pile- Raft Foundation (CPRF), in-situ load tests on the construction site and a sufficient soil investigation allow cost optimised constructions. In any case at challenging projects the observational method has to be applied for verification and quality control of the design. Regarding the 4-Eye-Principle as basis of the quality control management an independent peer review of the planning, design and construction phases is the guarantee for safety, serviceability and optimisation of all projects. Main execution standards for the construction of deep foundations based on the Eurocode 7 are summarised and discussed. The paper presents the basics of the safe and qualified design and construction of foundation systems including quality assurance. The application in engineering practice is shown on achallenging project of high-rise buildings with difficult boundary conditions.IntroductionThe construction of deep foundation elements in inner cities are special challenges due to the limited space for the construction works and the effects on existing buildings (Figure 1).An economic and safe design of deep foundation systems in difficult soil conditions is based on the following main aspects:•,qualified experts for planning, design and construction•,interaction between architects, structural engineers and geotechnical engineers•,adequate soil investigation•,design of deep foundation systems using the Finite-Element-Method (FEM) in combination with•,enhanced in-situ load tests for calibrating the soil parameters used in the numerical simulations•,quality assurance by an independent peer review process (4-eye-principle) combined with theobservational method if necessary"

Jan 1, 2014

By Frank J. Arland

Augered-Cast-in-Place piles have been used successfully for many deep foundation applications. The four case studies discussed herein describe ACIP pile projects where problems developed during ACIP pile installation requiring changes to the method or sequence of installation. The case studies illustrate the importance of understanding existing subsurface conditions and project constraints when considering the use of this pile type. Ground loosening and over-excavation of soil during the augering process, a significant concern for fine to medium sands and non-plastic silts below the water table, can significantly impact adjacent structures. This risk needs to be evaluated during the pile selection process and generally can be mitigated, but not eliminated, by requiring the use of piling equipment with high torque and slow auger rotation speed to advance the auger with minimum amount of rotation. In some applications where high lateral stresses in the soil are present such as at the base of retaining structures, the use of ACIP piles may not be appropriate if structure movement is unacceptable. On the other hand, ACIP piles have been successfully used to support deep foundations in preconsolidated varved deposits where the new structure was designed to accommodate recompression settlement.

Jan 1, 2004

By Eugene Mirsky, Eloy Ramos, May ElKhattab, John Wise, Terrence Carroll, Jose Torres

In 2017, Nicholson Construction Company completed a $72.1 million design-build contract for Miami Dade Water and Sewer Department to replace an existing 54-inch diameter pre-stressed concrete force main that runs from the Virginia Key Central District Wastewater Treatment Plant, under the Biscayne Bay at Norris Cut, to Fisher Island. In order to install the new sewer pipe below the bottom of Biscayne Bay, a tunnel boring machine (TBM) was launched from a 42ft diameter and 89ft deep shaft on Virginia Key and a precast segmentally lined tunnel was constructed towards a 28ft diameter and 72ft deep retrieval shaft on Fisher Island. Both shafts were constructed through sand and highly permeable limestone, primarily the Fort Thompson Formation which is part of one of the most permeable aquifers in the United States and two different techniques were used to ensure a water-tight shaft at each end of the tunnel drive. The launch shaft structure was built using the secant pile technique, wet excavation and a tremie plug. For the tunnel break-in a soil freeze block was installed after the ground was treated with low mobility grout. The retrieval shaft was built using the Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) technique and excavated in the dry. Precedence of any other structure built this deep through hard layers (UCS over 3,000 psi) using this technique was not found. This case study addresses the challenges of constructing watertight underground structures in highly porous ground for launching and retrieving a TBM. Design challenges from complex asymmetric loading, selection and comparison of the construction techniques, the installation and excavation of both shafts, and their performance are also discussed herein.

Jan 1, 2018

By Maurice Bottiau

"Abstract When addressing the performance of deep foundations, many parameters play a role, from adequate soil investigation to performance monitoring and testing. The correct understanding of pile construction, though, remains crucial. After a long period of empirical design and regulations, the last decades have been the ones of theoretical considerations and extensive codes writing. The interaction between technology and design, however, still plays a determinant role. The introduction of hydraulics and the exponential increase in available power on one hand, the miniaturization and the introduction of electronics in control and monitoring systems on the other hand have exerted a major influence on new foundation systems or the evolution and control of existing systems. It appears important to try to take execution related parameters and their control during execution more deeply into account when assessing the final result of the deep foundations and the achieved level of safety and reliability. In this contribution, we will try to analyze how systems, equipment and pile production monitoring and testing can influence the pile performance, and if/how this influence could/should be translated in adapted safety or installation factors. This analysis will run through different categories of piles: driven, augercast and displacement auger piles and bored piles. INTRODUCTIONThe global performance of a deep foundation depends on different aspects (Poulos, 2003):1. Ground investigation2. Design and analysis3. Construction4. Testing5. Performance monitoring6. Remediation and performance enhancementThis paper intends to address the importance of pile construction and the control of it on the final performance of the pile-group of piles. There has been an increasing interest for theoretical analysis over the last 20 years, followed by an increasing impact of regulation and codes. Without denying the importance of the latter, the author wants to point out how installation procedure and project specific parameters can largely influence the reliability of the deep foundation. In this context, detailed and prescriptive standards can miss their objective of intended improvement of accuracy and reliability, but even worse they can adversely impact engineering judgment. In today’s construction world, it is possible to gather installation information which can be of outmost importance for the final deep foundations performance. Therefore, the increase or decrease of installation reliability through adequate pile testing and performance monitoring should be emphasized and should be taken into account in the codes. This is the case already in most advanced codes, but in a limited and insufficiently refined way. After reviewing how codes deal with this issue today, we will show some recent examples of unexpected results due to pile installation. We will try to put these examples into a broader perspective by highlighting some reference and/or recent literature considerations. Finally we will try to summarize how pile testing and installation documentation can increase reliability and attempt to open the debate on how codes could/should allow for more engineering judgment."

Jan 1, 2014

By Kazunori Matsushita, Frank Vespi, Emi Walder, Mitsuo Nozu

During the runway expansion project at the Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport in Florida (FLL project), therewere complicated geotechnical issues with a number of cavities in the limestone-loose sand mixed ground thatexisted in many areas below the existing ground. Collapsing the cavities and compacting the runway foundation to secure the take-off and landing of aircrafts was a necessary requirement for the project. The Mammoth Vibro-Tamper (MVT) which produces less vibration and noise level, was proposed and accepted as the alternative to the originally specified Deep Dynamic Compaction (DDC) for the runway with its length of 1.5 miles and area of 570,000 square yards. In this report, the shallow compaction effect and reduced ground vibration with the MVT are presented in comparison with the DDC which was utilized on the same project in a different area of the airport. INTRODUCTION MVT was developed by Fudo Tetra Corporation in the 1960’s and has been widely used in Japan (more than 14,400,000 square yards). For example, at the Kansai International airport, a large area including aprons was compacted with the MVT. It is capable of compacting up to approximately 5m in depth by using a heavy steel plate (3m x 3m) and a strong vibrator motor (V-180, 10Hz) on top of the steel thick plate with specified time duration. We were involved in densification work with the MVT at the Fort Lauderdale Airport Project (Figure 1) from June, 2012 to February, 2014. Deep Dynamic Compaction (DDC) was originally specified as the compaction method to secure the relative density over 70% in every 2,000 square yards grids, however, we proposed the application of MVT to reduce the vibration risk and it was accepted as the alternative (Figure 2). The compaction work was completed in February 2014, without causing any delay in regard to the residual settlement due to the high embankment (H=60ft=18m).

Jan 1, 2018

By Francis J. Arland

The installation of augered cast-in-place (ACIP) piles requires careful quality control to assure a successful pile installation. Unlike steel, pre-stressed concrete or other types of driven piles, which are shop fabricated, delivered to the site and typically driven to a minimum tip resistance, augered cast-in-place piles are installed to a pre-determined tip elevation or to a refusal criteria. The structural section of the ACIP pile is constructed during pile installation and cannot be inspected prior to installation. Therefore, a carefully administered quality control program is essential to a pile foundation that will meet or exceed design requirements. This requires an experienced team consisting of the Geotechnical Engineer, Contractor and Inspector. The focus of this paper is to discuss the responsibilities and duties of the ACIP piling Inspector. Qualifications of the Inspector The qualifications of the inspector are related to the complexity and difficulty of the proposed project. Ideally, the Inspector should be an individual with a degree in civil engineering with special emphasis in geotechnical engineering. A properly trained technician with geotechnical engineering experience working under the direct supervision of a geotechnical engineer may be able to provide competent inspection on some projects. It is important that the Inspector have a good understanding of subsurface and ground water conditions and how they will affect pile installation. The Inspector must understand ACIP pile installation procedures and be able to communicate with the Contractor, Structural and Geotechnical Engineers; and maintain a detailed pile record for each installed pile.

Jan 1, 1997

By F. Pagliacci

Retaining walls for the construction of underground urban infrastructures have to be executed considering the impact of a deep foundation job-site within an urban network. Traditional excavation systems, based on the use of grabs and bentonite mud, involve serious problems such as: the opening of trenches adjacent to existing buildings; the cleaning of the working area; the site installation for the production and storage of the bentonite mud; the transport and disposal of soil contaminated with bentonite mud. Alternative solutions have therefore been developed in order to overcome these problems. For temporary works soil consolidation methods, combined with the use of sheet piles, have been implemented, by a combination of traditional mixing methods and jet grouting systems to speed up the operations, consequently reducing the construction time. For permanent works two new techniques named respectively CSP (Cased Secant Piles) and CDW (Continuous Diaphragm Walls) have been studied, applied and tested.

Jan 1, 2000

By J. Tanner Blackburn, James R. Gingery, Lisheng Shao

Rigid inclusions consist of grout columns installed using displacement auger or vibrated tooling. The columns are typically installed in an array to provide support for footings, mats, or embankments. Due to the relative small column diameter and low replacement ratio, the surrounding soils typically have minimal densification or improvement. A gravel load transfer platform is commonly used above the rigid inclusion head to distribute stresses more broadly to the supported structure. The axial stiffness and geotechnical engineering mechanics of rigid inclusion design are similar to those of deep foundation systems, but they are typically only lightly- or un-reinforced and are not structurally connected to the above-grade structure. The popularity of rigid inclusions is increasing in the Western U.S., where many urban areas are subject to moderate to high seismic hazard levels. However, the performance of rigid inclusions under seismic loading is poorly understood, and seldom addressed in current designs. The elements are brittle, with limited or no ductility and relatively low moment capacity, and therefore may be prone to damage under seismic loading. Three modes of seismic loading should be considered: inertial loading from the structure, kinematic loading from vertically propagating shear waves, and kinematic loading from ground failure- related permanent ground deformation. This paper focuses on the first two modes. A simplified procedure for evaluating kinematic and inertial loading of rigid inclusions is described, and its use is illustrated through application to a site in Southern California. The results show that moderate to severe kinematic loading can generate plastic hinges in the rigid inclusions. Engineering consequences of this hinging could include settlement or bearing failure. INTRODUCTION In this paper the term ‘rigid inclusion’ (RI) refers to grout or grouted aggregate columns that are installed using either drilled or vibration displacement techniques. They are commonly installed in arrays to support vertical loads from footings, mats, or embankments. RIs are not structurally connected to footings they support. Rather, it is typical for a dense gravel load transfer platform (LTP) to be installed as a cushion between the RI head and supported footing or new fill. In cases of RI support of fill embankments, the LTP may be reinforced with horizontal layers of geogrid.

Jan 1, 2018

By Robert B. Bittner

Large diameter piles (2 to 3 m diameter, both driven and drilled) are being used more frequently by designers of bridge foundations. The use of these large piles allows the pile cap to be positioned off the bottom but usually still below water. Conventional cofferdams as shown in Figure 1 below are not suited to this type of pile cap. However, float-in cofferdams offer a viable alternative. This paper describes the float-in cofferdam system, its initial development for use on the Bath-Woolwich Bridge in Maine and its most recent application on the new Carquinez Bridge in California.

Jan 1, 2013

By Robert B. Bittner

"AbstractLarge diameter tubular piles offer significant advantages in terms of design performance and economy for major marine structures. This is particularly true for foundations of major overwater bridges in regions of high seismicity such as the west coast of North America. The use of large diameter piles in the range of 2 to 3 m diameter means that fewer piles are required, and the size and mass of the pile caps can be significantly reduced, thereby greatly reducing lateral load demand during seismic events. Another advantage of using larger diameter piles is increased pile stiffness that allows the pile caps to be located at or near the waterline rather than being positioned at or below the mud line. This elevating of the pile cap offers significant cost savings by eliminating the need for deep cofferdams. However, relocation of the pile cap creates new problems and opportunities in regard to the means and methods used to construct the pile cap. With the pile cap at depth, conventional steel sheet pile cofferdams with thick tremie seals are typically used to isolated the cap location and allow dewatering for construction of the cap. However with pile caps positioned up off the bottom, conventional bottom founded cofferdams are no longer cost efficient. Float-in or lift-in cofferdams have been developed to address the need for a more cost efficient method for cap construction. This paper describes the key features of the concept and provides three case history examples of its successful implementation.Pier Construction Using Conventional Sheet-Pile CofferdamsCofferdams are temporary structures used in the construction of bridge piers and other marine structures. Their primary purpose is to hold out water and unstable soil from the construction area, and thereby, allow in-the-dry construction of the permanent structure below the water line and quite often below the mud line. Typically, cofferdams consist of long interlocking steel sheet piles driven through water into the bottom of the waterway. The sheet piles form temporary exterior walls which are typically braced internally with wales and struts. The bottom of the cofferdam is typically sealed with tremie concrete or an impervious clay layer if one exists. The depth at which this type of cofferdam can be used is typically limited by the length of steel sheet pile that can be transported and handled by conventional marine equipment."

Jan 1, 2014

By Hiren J. Shah

The urban environment and geology create unique challenges for design and construction of deep foundations. The effect of these is prominently experienced in New York City. Three such project case histories are presented in this paper. The first project is a multi-use development. Relatively unusual glacial geology was observed at the site during the subsurface investigation phase. This played an important role in the selection of deep foundations as well as during construction. The design and construction aspects of the pile foundations, settlement estimates, a pile drive test program during design, piling equipment and production pile installation are discussed herein. A relatively smaller project is the second case history. A combination of drilled and driven deep foundations was employed in one area of the project due to its unique conditions. In another area of the project, an addition to a structure required the use of supplemental foundations to resist new additional loading. Tight space and load sharing with the existing foundations were important considerations in the design and construction. Finite element modeling of the existing and completed structure was performed which was an interesting aspect of the project. The third project case history involves a very large multi-billion dollar project in which various different types of deep foundation elements were used. The aspects requiring the use of such a variety of types and sizes of deep foundation elements included: geologic conditions, re-use of existing foundations, protection of adjacent infrastructure, construction staging, restricted space, loads, deep excavations, cost and schedule.

Jan 1, 2011

By James A. Schneider

Selection of resistance factors within Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) requires accurate assessment of uncertainty and bias in load and resistance. To date, many studies have focused predominantly on the assessment of uncertainty, while the potential for bias appears to be the dominant factor in design for consistent levels of reliability under a variety of situations. Bias comes from factors which have been ignored in design method development but significantly influence resistance when extrapolating from conditions typical of databases to those at a given site. Uncertainty and bias can be quantified as the coefficient of variation and mean (or median) of a data set, respectively, for statistical assessment of load and resistance factors. This paper first presents an overview of statistical assessment of resistance factors, and then discusses factors that influence uncertainty and bias when extrapolating to situations outside of conventional databases of driven pile axial capacity.

Jan 1, 2009