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By M Grigorescu, J H. Hodgkinson

The expansive, open cut iron-ore mines in Western Australia typically experience few days of rain per annum, often amounting to less than 250 mm. Unlike mines where rainfall is frequent, they may be less prepared for extreme rainfall events. Such events can cause erosion, flooding and sedimentation, drainage alteration, spoil and stock heaps wetting and effect slope stability. Such impacts may threaten personnel safety, infrastructure, and production. The CRATER (‘Climate Related Adaptation from Terrain Evaluation Results’) framework collates and interprets a mine’s pre-existing data and semi-quantitative information to assess vulnerability to, and ultimately plan to avoid or minimise, flood-related hazard to infrastructure, people, downtime, environment and revenue. Outputs assist decision makers to design investment strategies for minimising mining operations’ vulnerability to climate. Previously developed for smaller, wetter mines in Queensland’s coal region, the outputs provide a hot-spot map, fault tree analysis and an assessment of the mine’s capacity to adapt. The multicriteria evaluation (MCE) within a geographic information system (GIS), equally suits iron-ore mines’ siteconditions (elevation, slope, drainage, soil and vegetation) to identify critical inundation areas. Hotspot results provide target zones for in-depth fault-tree analysis that, in turn, present a range of sitespecific adaptation options. Rainfall-intensity and the number of rain days since the 1970s have increased over central and eastern parts of the Pilbara Region. While tropical cyclones may become less frequent, they are projected to increase in intensity. Although some parts of the Hamersley Ranges receive more than 500 mm per annum, rainfall in the Pilbara is generally very low. Therefore, experience of the impacts of extreme rainfall events in the constantly changing topography of Western Australia’s iron ore region may be sparse. Minimising potential effects can be proactively assisted using CRATER.

Nov 8, 2021

By J P. Moodie

Recent trends in flotation technology are briefly reviewed. These show that considerable development has been made as the operators, suppliers and technologists have responded to the challenges of the industry. Most of these advances have been based on empirical and phenomenological methods. There is a considerable opportunity to make further advances through a more fundamental, scientific approach. Some of this work is discussed and, although progress is being made on this front, industrial uptake has been somewhat slow. A number of specific issues facing the industry are discussed.

Jan 1, 2005

By Hughson B

The need to prevent the sterilisation of coal stems directly from the fact that it is a non-renewable resource. In N.S.W. a vast amount of coal resource is located under major public utilities such as freeways, railways, stored waters, pipelines carrying gas, water and sewage, and transmission lines. Total extraction has occurred under freeways, transmission lines and pipelines with little or no damage. Where damage has resulted, the cost of restoration was only a small fraction of the value of the coal recovered. However, coal at present is being sterilised and perhaps lost for ever under stored waters and railways. If engineering solutions are available for mining under these improvements economically and with maximum safety, then coal should be extracted and utilised to the benefit of the State.

Jan 1, 1986

Prior to the merger of BHP and Billiton, both companies had a keenfocus on improving their performance in health, safety, environment and community (HSEC) matters. This shared intent, albeit executed insomewhat different ways, provided an excellent foundation for the newCompany. During the integration planning phase, a team was formed toconsider the organisational design for consistently achieving world class HSEC performance. The design included the policy platform, resources, structures, standards and procedures to be implemented in the merged entity. A key aspect of the design was the fully integrated HSECManagement Standards. These Standards create the framework for theconsistent application of BHP BillitonÆs HSEC Policy at all of ourmanaged operations across the world. The Standards have their origin in similar frameworks adopted by BHP during the 1990s, as well as thewell-known quality related standards (eg ISO 14001). However, they areunique in that they combine all aspects of HSEC management into asingle integrated set of auditable standards. By combining these areas and integrating our HSEC Management Standards with other aspects of the æBHP Billiton WayÆ, we are establishing a holistic, line management driven improvement approach. Over time, the BHP Billiton Way will embed a systematic improvement philosophy that we expect will become a key source of competitive advantage. The HSEC Management Standards are consistent with ISO 14001,OHSAS 18001, the Australian Minerals Industry Code for EnvironmentalManagement and generally aligned with SA8000. While compliance withthese external standards ensures that a systematic approach andimprovement plans are in place, BHP BillitonÆs HSEC Standards gofurther to include minimum performance requirements that reflect theintent of our HSEC Policy. Therefore, implementation at site levelensures that robust systems are in place to implement our Policy and that accreditation can be achieved to external standards if required.To assess implementation of the HSEC Management Standards anaudit system has been designed which incorporates both self-assessmentand peer review. Each site is required to undertake an annualself-assessment of compliance with the Standards using a commonassessment protocol. Every three years a peer review is conducted at each site to confirm the results of self-assessment and to provide a means of sharing knowledge throughout the Company. The review teams are composed of line managers and HSEC professionals from around theCompany, representatives of our joint venture partners and independentspecialists as required. The Company has committed to public reportingof the audit results through our annual HSEC report and this is reflected in our published targets. From a wider perspective, as we in the resources industry strive tocollectively raise our HSEC performance and reputation, there may be arole for industry based HSEC Management Standards complemented bya level of independent review.

Jan 1, 2002

A combination of the needs of business, employee desires and safety and health considerations is stimulating increasing attention to the time spent by people at work and the timing of that work. Particularly we are seeing: - innovative work schedules for 24-hour mining businesses; and - response from industry to accommodate the needs, even the desires, of employees in return for systems which are more productive and more capital efficient. There appears to be an evolutionary trend for business management to become more sophisticated and responsive to the need for achieving close to best cost work schedules to sustain continuous improvement. The underlying motivating forces driving this trend for improved techniques in organising attendance at, and time spent at work, is the seemingly inseparable combination of technological advance and ever-increasing accumulation of capital. The mining industry has not remained untouched by this thrust for ever-increasing need for best use of labour, to adopt advances in technology and to provide attractive opportunities for putting accumulated capital to work. An essential component of this on-going thrust is a substantial effort by the mining industry to improve the performance of labour by providing most-productive work schedules.

Jan 1, 1996

Before I begin this paper, I thought that it would be important to start with a brief background on myself. This will give some insight into where I am coming from with some of the ideas presented in the body of the paper. I studied mining engineering at the University of New South Wales, graduating with Honours in 1999. When I finished university I was offered a job with PricewaterhouseCoopers in Sydney, working in the Energy and Mining Group of the Audit practice; which I accepted. I have been working at PricewaterhouseCoopers now since January 1999, completing an accounting conversion course at the University of Technology Sydney along the way. I am currently beginning my Professional Year for Chartered Accountant qualification. During my later years at university, continuing on through the start of my working career, I have been involved with the Sydney Branch of The AusIMM; firstly, as a student representative and, now, as the Young Professional Representative. Therefore, you can probably see that I will have very different young professional experiences than some of my peers who have been working on mining sites. The purpose of this paper is to examine the challenges that face graduates who are entering the industry and what solutions are used to ensure that this entrance is as smooth as possible. A challenge has then been made to the industry and The Institute in the form of further observations on ways that this entrance may be improved and the development of graduates to be more effective. In preparing this paper I have discussed various graduate experiences with some of my colleagues in order to see what some of the challenges they, themselves, face now and, also, going forward. I also discussed with them what they see as solutions to these challenges, drawing on some of my own experiences in a different company environment.

Jan 1, 2000

Mines in the future deliver a paradigm shift in the way mining, material handling and processing are performed, unlocking significant value through production efficiency, flexibility and lower costs and enabling substantial safety and environmental benefits (V Schweikart). Mines in the future are highly productive, with low production costs and are significantly safer. They operate with a skeleton crew and use intelligent systems that fuse information from field instrumentation and other sources to generate the most efficient operating environment. Automated systems are seamlessly integrated across the mine and across the corporate enterprise. Geological models, long-term and short-term plans create optimised production schedules, suitably generated by the mine simulator. Production schedules are shared with the operations management system for deployment mainly by remotely operated and autonomous equipment. As the schedule is implemented, information is collected and shared with various plans, schedules, models and optimisation programs. This production environment is managed in real time from a æCentral Operations CentreÆ and it is visible across the business providing fast and accurate information about productivity, machine condition and environmental conditions. Central Operations Centres also house teams of subject matter experts that monitor and manage the mines and are able to communicate directly with the skeleton crew in the field. Constraints across the production line are displayed and managed appropriately from this location to maximise throughput. Maintenance is interactive and predictive. Reliability specialists in Central Operations Centres monitor the status of machinery and equipment and adjust maintenance plans and strategies to suit. Mining businesses rely heavily on knowledge workers û people with considerable knowledge and learning û and by manual workers. This new knowledge workforce is a team of associates rather than of bosses and subordinates. Field experts become leaders with tremendous autonomy regarding their work. The former line hierarchy becomes a support structure, intervening only in extreme emergencies; instead of giving orders, they are now removing barriers, expediting resources, conducting studies and acting as consultants.

Jan 1, 2009

The Telfer Gold Mine, owned and operated by Newcrest Mining and located in Western Australia, is currently being expanded. A new underground sublevel cave development is proposed along with an appreciable expansion of the open pit. The Telfer area is generally subject to low rainfall, however, during the wet season cyclonic events can result in sizable rain events, which have the potential to cause substantial inflow. In addition to this, during the first five years (nominal) of the mineÆs life, there is the potential for drainage paths between the pit and the underground mine via decommissioned underground workings which lie directly under the pit. After this initial five year period the pit floor will be mined out below the old workings and will therefore no longer connect to the underground, however cave breakthrough to the surface may start to occur thus providing another water path into the underground mine. To arrive at an optimum, safe solution for dewatering the mine that successfully addressed the above items, a rigorous risk analysis was included as an integral part of the design process. This involved the determination of the probability of events occurring and the consequences of these occurrences. This was compared against the cost of mitigation for the various events. This paper outlines the process by which a safe concept addressing all the issues relating to dewatering the proposed mine has been arrived at. This process included: Establishing the pit catchment areas. These were based on historical run-off data and took into account practical mitigation works. Establishing an Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) based on reference material and historical rainfall data. Utilising a standard approach based on Australian Rainfall and Run-off (ARR) to calculate pumping and storage requirements for the various catchments. Analysing the 20 years of recorded rainfall in the Telfer area to establish the duration, magnitude and sequence of events. This analysis assisted in determining the surface run-off coefficient. Establishing potential water storage areas and determining the risks associated with using particular storage options. Establishing the percolation rate through the cave zone. A degree of uncertainty regarding the percolation rate in the cave zone required that the consequences of using various percolation rates were considered to aid in establishing the rate which was adopted. Establishing preliminary concepts and determining the most economically viable concept. Conducting a risk assessment based on the principles outlined by Australian Rainfall and Run-off (ARR) to confirm that the appropriate Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) had been selected. A risk assessment was also conducted in accordance with client requirements. Establishing the optimum pump station sizes and storage capacities. Establishing the appropriate numbers of duty and standby equipment. By using the foregoing process, which included a number of stages of risk analyses, an optimum dewatering system concept was produced.

Jan 1, 2003

By Leach T

The Tolukuma Gold Deposit is hosted by metamorphic and volcanic rocks, and igneous intrusions. Dilatant structures for the main veining appear to be provided by post-metamorphic flexure/faulting; syn-mineralisation tectonics is recognised from the en-echelon patterns of much of the veining. A SSE trending structure containing high grade mineralisation has acted as a major dilational zone within or at the contacts of porphyry intrusions. An ESE trend has controlled numerous dilational structures splaying eastward from the SSE vein structure and containing medium grade mineralisation.Early hydrothermal activity (Stage I) is represented by unmineralised, pyrite-rich brecciation and fracturing. Associated chloritic veining is indicative of single phase neutral-chloride fluids upwelling in relatively low fracture controlled nenneahility

Jan 1, 1993

By Gao K, Wu C, Langley J. M, Waugh B, Farrell K

The dissolution of carbon from carbonaceous materials into molten iron is a key step in various ironmaking operations. For example, in new direct smelting processes, carbon in the form of coal is injected into the molten iron bath, which leads to the dissolution of carbon. In foundry operations, typical recarburizer materials can range from high purity graphite to chars. The dissolution performance of these" materials is critical to the operation and could dictate the efficiency and economics of the process.Dissolution kinetics has been studied by various investigators to explain the influence of melt conditions and carbon type (Sahajwalla et al, 1994; Shigeno, Tokuda, and Ohtani, 1985; Orsten and Oeters; 1988; Ganguly and Reid, 1992; Wright and Taylor, 1993). The influence of melt sulphur content on the dissolution kinetics has been characterised (Sahajwalla et al, 1994), with sulphur retarding the rate of carbon dissolution. The carbon dissolution from different sources is seen to vary significantly even under similar melt conditions. This observation has been explained by investigators on the basis of the varying ash content present in the carbonaceous materials. However, ash content alone cannot account for the variability in dissolution kinetics reported in other studies. One such study is presented below.In a recent study (Sahajwalla et al, 1994), pulverised carbonaceous materials were injected into the molten iron bath and the" dissolution kinetics was established. The dissolution of graphite and glassy carbon, which contain almost 100 per cent carbon, was seen to be significantly different when the molten iron contained sulphur. The influence of melt sulphur content was explained on the basis of different wetting behaviour observed.Importantly, the study showed that even pure carbon sources dissolved at significantly different rates. Hence, their performance could not be explained on the basis of ash content.The key difference between graphite and glassy carbon is in their atomic structure. Graphite is highly ordered whereas glassy carbon has relatively poor ordering in its atomic structure. This study showed that the atomic structure in carbonaceous materials can have a significant effect on their dissolution performance.The focus of the present investigation which stems from the past study described above (Sahajwalla et al, 1994), is to investigate the influence of atomic structure of carbonaceous materials on their dissolution into Fe-C-S melts.The specific objective of this study is to determine the relationship between dissolution kinetics and crystallographic character of carbon sources. In order to accomplish this goal, a range of different materials representing a spectrum of carbon sources have been chosen for the investigation. These materials include brown coal char, two types of Auscarb (A and B), and commercial graphite. Auscarb is prepared by calcining Auscoal at 1000°C. Auscoal is made from chemically cleaned Australian coals (Bowling, Chandler and Waugh, 1990). Part 1 of this paper details the dissolution performance of the materials studied, while Part 11 describes the X-ray diffraction study. The relationship between the atomic structural dimension and dissolution rate constant is discussed in light of the results obtained.

Jan 1, 1996

By A T. Bernardes

Using the cellular automata computational technique it was possible to simulate the generation and discharge of an iron ore pellet pile inside a direct iron reduction oven, as well as to calculate the reduction degree of the pellets as they leave the oven. It allows simulation of the variation of operational parameters and verify the results of those variations in the pellet reduction degree. The simulated data was validated in two instances: for the dynamics of the pellet flow inside the oven it was used in an acrylic bi-dimensional silo; and data from direct reduction iron literature was used for validation of the pellet reduction. The simulated results were considered acceptable to describe the movement of the iron pellet inside the direct reduction iron oven and to describe the iron pellet reduction direct in the oven.

Sep 26, 2011

The main asset of a mining company is the mineral resource; without resources there is no mining business and the infrastructure is useless. In this context the role of the mining geologist is to always keep the resource inventory to an optimum level for the mining business and to maximise the transformation of the resources into reserves in a multi- disciplinary work environment. In short, a ægood mining geologist has to always provide the best ore to the millÆ.To do his/her work properly, several technical skills are needed: to know how to observe and describe nature in order to optimise the data acquisition process, particularly when mapping; to have a good understanding of natural variability in order to develop proper sampling strategies and sample preparation protocols to minimise all the errors generated by the sampling process; to have a good understanding of assaying practices: their limitations as well as their assaying errors; to carefully and properly store the geological data and information and to preserve the geological patrimony; to fully understand ore forming processes to generate the best possible geoscientific models, which are fundamental for the mining business; to fully understand the consequences of the geoscientific models along the value chain from rock to cathodes; and to continuously validate and improve geological practices and models by continuous data collection and observation of geo- mining-metallurgy processes. Some very important behavioural competencies are also needed:long-term vision, passion for excellence and value generation, strategic influence, systemic and innovative thinking, and knowledge and experience transfer. Last but not least, it is important to point out that a deep knowledge of the mining business is essential to add value by using geology best practices.

Jan 1, 2006

By N LaBranche

The resurgence of Silicosis and Coal Worker’s Pneumoconiosis (CWP) in coalmines has placed the spotlight back on the management of worker exposure to particulate matter across all mining sectors (Coal Workers Pneumoconiosis Select Committee, 2017). There already exists a substantial body of knowledge on particulate matter and its impacts upon human health (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, 2018). The contribution of silica to respiratory disease is well known. However, it is also clear that there are major gaps in our understanding. In part, those gaps relate to the contribution to adverse health effects of mineralogical constituents in the dust (LaBranche et al, 2021a). It is also becoming evident that the size and shape of the particulate matter can affect its potential impact on human health. The University of Queensland has developed a methodology for characterising respirable and inhalable dust samples using scanning electron microscopy. Multiple samples from numerous mining operations have already been analysed using the UQ methodology. The process has been successful in showing the variety of mineralogical components and particle size distributions present in various areas of the mines.

May 5, 2022

By M Cooksey, Z Zhu, N Langrené, W Chen, T Tarnopolskaya

"Dynamic decision-making can significantly increase the value of mining projects and deliver better sustainability outcomes under conditions of uncertainty. Despite its benefits, dynamic decision-making is rarely used by the mining industry, possibly because of the complexity of the algorithms used to make sequential decisions under uncertainty and difficulties in visualising the optimal strategies. To achieve better outcomes in practice, decision-makers in industry would benefit from a tool that would help them to understand and implement the results of the analysis.CSIRO is developing innovative dynamic decision support tools that include an intuitive graphical display of the boundaries between the regions of different optimal decisions, which would significantly assist optimal sequential decision-making under uncertainty. The dynamic decision support tool is based on novel stochastic optimal control methodologies that can be used to optimise decisions in situations with multiple uncertain variables and decisions (Tarnopolskaya, Chen and Bao, 2015; Chen et al, 2015; Langrené et al, 2015). The types of market uncertainties that can be considered include commodity prices, interest rates and exchange rate, while the key orebody uncertainties include the reserves, boundaries between ore types and even geometallurgical parameters.The dynamic decision support tools have a number of benefits and can be used to:construct optimal operational strategies and to optimally manage resources projectsgain insight into optimal strategies under different market conditions and project settings compare expected project values under different project settings and to select the setting that provides best sustainability outcomes.This extended abstract demonstrates the use and benefits of the dynamic decision support tools using a synthetic case study of a gold mine.CITATION:Chen, W, Langrené, N, Tarnopolskaya, T, Zhu, Z and Cooksey, M, 2016. Dynamic decisions under uncertainty – a case study on a gold mine, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2016 Conference, pp 20–23 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Jun 28, 2016

By MJ SMITH

For the past 150 years, drilling and blasting has been an integral part of the underground mining industry in Australia. Ever since Busby's Bore was developed using black powder to supply Sydney with water, miners have been drilling holes, filling them with explosives and blasting the rock into a manageable size. The drilling was fairly straight forward but the explosives were always a mysterious commodity. It worked, but how and why? The explosives industry is now working much closer to the mining industry to dispel these mysteries and also to aid the advancement of explosive technology. This paper looks at the results of these advances in the form of explosives, accessories and blasting systems.

Jan 1, 1992

By Clappison D. J

Since its formation in Papua New Guinea and raising of A$2 million in 1980, Niugini Mining Limited (NML) has grown to a company capitalised on the Australian Stock Exchange at about A$350 million. In 1995 the company produced some 237 000 ounces of gold, 700 000 ounces of silver and nearly 5000 tonnes of copper from its operations at Red Dome, in North Queensland and San Cristobal in The Atacama Desert of Northern Chile. This production contrasts with Niugini Mining's first mining venture at Mt Victor in the Eastern Highlands of PNG which yielded 20 000 ounces of gold and 11 600 of silver between 1987 and 1989. Following the formation of an exploration joint venture in 1982 with Kennecott Explorations (Australia) Ltd, now a subsidiary of RTZ, Niugini Mining's early recognition of the gold potential of volcanic rocks at plate margins led to discovery of the Lihir deposit in July 1982. This deposit containing about 42 million ounces of gold in resources, is one of the largest undeveloped gold deposits in the world. Following raising of equity funds through the float of Lihir Gold Ltd and debt finance in 1995, construction of the mine at a cost of US$673 million is now underway with first full-scale production at approximately 600 000 ounces of gold per year expected in early- 1998.

Jan 1, 1996

By Allen RL, Clifford BA, Wright JV, Bull S

The Bunga Beds of the Late Devonian - Boyd Volcanic' Complex is a well exposed succession of rhyolite, sedimentary rocks and minor basalt outcropping along the south coast of New South Wales. The sedimentary rocks vary from shallow water basin margin facies, to deep-water basin centre facies, and the majority of .the volcanics are associated with the deep water facies association. The volcanics are dominated by rhyolite domes, lavas and cryptodomes, whose margins are extensively autobrecciated and quench fragmented. In situ pyroclastics represent a very minor volcanic component and are restricted to the remnants of two small doors- top tuff cone successions. Pyroclastic debris is common in the sedimentary succession enclosing the volcanics and was clearly derived from shallow to emergent basin margin areas through mass-flow redeposition. The succession has bearing on the origin of the fragmental component of, the volcanics that host Kuroko- type massive sulphide deposits. The characteristics of these fragmental volcanics are not well documented. We suggest that based on the Bunga Beds,'Kuroko-type volcanic successions are dominated by coherent rhyolite/ felsic lavas and intrusive domes, autobreccias and hyaloclastites, that in situ pyroclastics are rare or lacking, and that redeposited volcanic debris is abundant. Pyroclastic debris is most likely to have been derived from shallow areas marginal to the deep-water volcanic centre that produce the Kuroko-type volcanics and sulphides.

Jan 1, 1987

Quality Assurance has become a buzzword amongst governments and industry. Notwithstanding the world class work done by its committees in developing codes of ethics and of practice in field geological handbooks, mining cost estimation handbooks, and reserve estimation, the AusIMM could better prepare its membership for QA. MICA could provide a simple set of guidelines to enable consultant members to develop their own QA procedures manual conforming to AusIMM Codes and to IS09003, and AS3903.

Jan 1, 1994

By C Berglin

Is the Northern Territory different? Certainly it is more remote, has less people and relies more heavily on two or three industries for its survival. On the other hand, its mining industry is governed by Acts not dissimilar to those of the major States - a Mining Act provides the basis for acquisition of tenure, a Mine Management Act provides regulatory control, a Mineral Royally Act collects revenue in return for the right to utilise the land's bounties, an Environmental Assessment Act provides the public face to rehabilitation and environmental safety, and the Aboriginal Land Rights (NT) Act purports to give development criteria for inalienable land use. With the exception of the latter, at least until the advent of Mabo, all these are simply variations on a theme, and are common to most States. This paper will show how the Department of Mines and Energy works in relation to the Northern Territory mining industry.

Jan 1, 1994

As the surrounding environment continues to change and evolve, mine managers face a changing climate of expectations. TodayÆs mine managers must juggle competing pressures to deliver sound social, environmental and economic results. Leadership is a fundamental tool for the effective mine manager. Whilst mine managers require solid technical and operational skills, importantly the manager must be able to engage a workforce, build and retain employees and seize opportunity for growth and development when presented. An important tool for engaging employees in the business at Rio Tinto Aluminium is the business improvement programme. At Rio Tinto AluminiumÆs Weipa mine, the business improvement methodology Six Sigma is used to deliver measurable, sustainable outcomes for the business. The next step in Rio Tinto AluminiumÆs improvement journey is to implement Lean Manufacturing at all managed operations. The operating environment for mine managers continuously evolves and effective mine managers must be flexible and adaptive to meet challenges. Governance and regulation constantly change in an environment of commodity cycles and finite resources. This increases pressure on the economic return achieved by the operation. As such, effective mine managers must be aware of and manage the operating environment û the broader, issues-based environment not just the immediate day-to-day responsibility of mine managing. This includes delivering on safety, community and environmental priorities. At Rio Tinto Aluminium, part of managing the business is via investment in the area of social partnerships to engage employees and the broader community in Rio Tinto AluminiumÆs commitment to sustainability. The Future Reef partnership entered with the Great Barrier Reef Research Foundation in 2005 forms an important part of Rio Tinto AluminiumÆs climate change strategy. This four-year, A$1 million investment funds programmes looking at the effect of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef. The partnership is a unique example of industry and science working together on an area of mutual and national concern. Modern mine managers require a broad set of skills to effectively deliver outcomes. TodayÆs mine managers must make innovative and courageous responses to determine todayÆs strategy for tomorrowÆs future.

Jan 1, 2006