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By L. L. Wyman

THE resultant embrittlement caused by the exposure of oxygen-bearing copper when hot and exposed to reducing gases has been the subject of many studies.1 Little attention, however, has been given to the possible embrittling effects due to atmospheres or conditions that under some circumstances might be the source of a reducing gas. At rather infrequent intervals there occur reports of copper becoming embrittled during normal annealing cycles in commercial steam-atmos-hered furnaces such as customarily are used for this operation. As might be expected, several other factors exist-such as oil, dirt on the wire, or in the furnace, or metallic surface contacts that might produce reducing gases and be the source of the trouble. However, in consider-ation of the statement made by Ruder,2 it would seem that under some conditions steam itself might prove to be the source of trouble. A consideration of the amount of the dissociation of water vapor up to temperatures of the melting point of copper shows that' the amount of hydrogen that could come from this source is far too minute to account for any embrittlement. What such information does not tell is what will happen at the surface of copper when subjected to steam at elevated temperatures, for entirely different conditions may persist, which would account for Ruder's observation. Furthermore, there are no data as to what might happen at the surfaces of other materials present, the result-ant of which might affect the condition of the copper present. For this reason, it was decided to make a series of experiments com-parable to those previously conducted by the writer,1 which would clarify the effect of the steam on copper, and in copper in the presence of steel.

Jan 1, 1940

[VOL. XXXVI. Page. Line. 155 29 For "Joachimstahl," read "Joachimsthal." 215 Foot-note 2. For " May, 1892," read " May, 1902." 216 21 For " ack-screw," read " jack-screw." VOL. XXXVII. 31 3 For "quantity of tons," read "quantity of slimes." 35 10 Expunge "recorded in Table VII." 37 24 Expunge "to." 38 33 For "page 89," read "page 9." 44 40 For "page 86," read "page 6." 47 In table, third line under heading "Excavators and Conveyors," expunge "per 40 ft. of."]

Jan 1, 1918

James W. Malcolmson died suddenly on Dec. 26, 1917, at Kansas City, Mo., where he had made his home for the past ten years. He was born at Dover, Kent, England, on Oct. 6, 1866. He graduated from the Royal School of Science, London, England, in 1889, and almost immediately after graduation came to Mexico, accepting a position with the Michoacan Railway and Mining Co., as mining and mechanical engineer. His work in the mining profession was carried on principally in Msxiac and the United States. • In 1888, he married Katherine Haden Krause, of Woolwich, Kent, England, and leaves, besides his wife, five sons and one daughter. During Mr. Malcolmson's long and successful career as a mining engineer, he was connected with the following companies: from 1889 to 1893, with the Michoacan Railway and Mining Co., as mining and mechanical engineer; from 1893 to 1898, in various capacities with the Kansas City Smelting & Refining Co.; after the consolidation of the Kansas City Smelting & Refining Co. with the American Smelting & Refining Co., he remained as manager of the mining department in Mexico of the American Smelting & Refining Co. until 1902. In 1902, he located in El Paso, and took up the practice of his profession as a consulting engineer. While there, he was consulting engineer for the famous and rich Pedrazzini mines at Chispas, in the State of Sonora. He was instrumental in organizing the La Republics mine in Chihuahua, and for a time acted as consulting engineer for the property. He remained in El Paso until 1907 and then moved to Kansas City and became associated with the United States & Mexican Trust Co., as consulting engineer. In 1909, he became connected with The Lucky Tiger Combination Gold Mining Co., as its consulting engineer, and continued in this connection and in the general practice of his profession as consulting engineer until his death.. His general policy in connection with the Lucky Tiger company was always a progressive one and the success of the enterprise can be largely attributed to him and his good judgment. Mr. Malcolmson contributed several articles to the Institute at different times, one of them being on the ore deposits of the Sierra Mojada Mining District, in 1901. Much of his work was in Mexico, and during his long residence in that country he acquired a very thorough knowledge of the Mexican people and their customs. During the revolution, from 1910 to 1916, this knowledge was of great value in connection with his work for the Lucky Tiger company, and often assisted greatly in keeping the property going. Mr. Malcolmson was one of the very widely known men in his profession; he was everywhere held in the very highest regard, and his position among men in the mining profession was an enviable and honorable one. At the time of his death, besides being consulting engineer for the Lucky Tiger company, he was interested in mines in the Miami zinc fields and was acting as consulting engineer for two of the operating properties there. He invested to quite an extent in real estate when he moved to Kansas City in 1907 and his investments in this line proved successful.

Jan 1, 1920

By J. G. Richardson, K. H. Coats

During the initial growth of a gas bubble in an aquifer storage reservoir the injected gas tends to override the water. The resulting low displacement efficiency and high rate of gas travel down-structure make it difficult to maintain water-free production. This paper illustrates the use of two-dimensional, two-phase calculations to simulate this gas-water displacement. Calculations were performed for a stratified aquifer and for several homogeneous sands differing in permeability, porosity and thickness. Results are discussed and compared with performance predictions obtained from the simpler Buckley-Leuerett and Dietz formulas. This comparison indicates the necessity for the two-dimensional calculations in realistically simulating the gravity override of the water by injected gas. INTRODUCTION In recent years natural gas has been stored near markets in aquifers where insufficient storage capacity is available in depleted fields. Operators of these aquifer storage reservoirs have encountered technical problems relating to the gas-water displacement accompanying initial growth of the gas bubble. Injected gas tends to override the water, with a resultant low displacement efficiency and high rate of gas travel down-structure toward spill points. Low displacement efficiency makes if difficult to sustain water-free gas production. Sometimes the fingering of gas down-structure may be so pronounced that the injection rate must be severely curtailed, which excessively lengthens the time required for bubble growth. This paper is concerned with estimating — for given aquifer characteristics and fluid properties — the displacement efficiency, rate of gas movement down-structure and rate of gravity drainage of water behind the gas front. Several published articles relate to simulative capability necessary to handle this problem. The Dietz formula1 and Buckley-Leverett2 method have some applicability to the problem; Woods and comer3 reported one-dimensional, radial calculations which accounted for the two-phase flow of gas and water. Most recent research directed toward understanding aquifer behavior in relation to gas storage has concentrated on single-phase flow in aquifer.4 Douglas, Peaceman and Rachford5 presented a method for calculating multidimensional two-phase flow in reservoirs; their method has been applied in work reported by Nielsen and Tek,6 Blair and peaceman7 and Goddin.8 Refs. 5 and 7 show comparisons between experimental data and calculations similar to those employed here. One purpose of this paper is to illustrate the use of two-dimensional, two-phase flow calculations in simulating the difficult problem of water displacement by gas in a vertical cross-section. The pronounced fluid density and viscosity differences combine with the disparity in horizontal and vertical dimensions of the cross-section to pose one of the more difficult problems in reservoir simulation. The calculations described account for capillary and gravity forces, relative permeability and reservoir heterogeneity. An example reservoir is described and calculated results are presented for a variety of injection rates and values of permeability, reservoir thickness and dip angle. A second purpose is to compare the two-dimensional calculations with results obtained from the Buckley-Leverett and Dietz formulas. For this reason most calculations were performed for a simplified example reservoir to which the latter techniques might reasonably be applied. However, the computer program employed applies equally well to cases involving arbitrary spatial variations of permeability, porosity, reservoir thickness and dip angle.

By Jay N. Fairbanks, Richard G. Robinson

This paper discusses a computer program and related formulas for fire fighting responses by coal mine personnel. The computer will interpret the mine air analysis, print reports, and provide relevant graphs allowing quick and accurate responses to coal mine fires.

Jan 1, 1983

Jan 1, 1923

WITH the economic situation of the world what it is, we may expect important events in every month of 1922, and January showed us some-what of the nature of things that will happen. The Germans announced their inability to meet in full the reparation payments that were due Jan. 15. The Su-preme Council arranged a plan for them to pay some thing on account every 10 days, and called a conference at Cannes to talk things over. While this conference was in progress Premier Briand resigned and was suc-ceeded by Poincaré. This emphasized the growing differences between British and French policies and interests. The French want to exact the utmost from the Germans; so do the British. The latter think, however, that the French aims will so cripple the Germans that they can not work properly and hence can not trade. Great Britain, with a huge unemploy-ment problem, must have trade. The French thought that Briand was unduly deferring to the British and withdrew their support of him. The other important political developments of the month in Europe were the establishment of the Irish Free State, relieving the British of the vexatious Irish question; and the growing tendency to recognize the Soviet government of Russia and admit its representa-tives into international conferences. In the United States the great political event was the establishment of the dominance of the agricultural bloc in the Senate, which implies the passage of agrarian legislation that will probably be unwise. Economically, there was no progress in the United States. If anything there was probably some reces-sion in the physical volume of business. There were some further reductions of wages, but these were irregular, geographically, and moderate in amount. The great unionized trades maintained the jam. Events of great importance were the formal demand of the anthracite coal miners for increased wages on April 1 and the declaration of the bituminous coal miners that they would resist a reduction at that time. The attitude of these groups is believed to presage labor troubles in the spring. In the metal markets affairs were dull during Janu-ary, but prices were generally firm, save for a little further weakening in iron and steel. In the matter of production, however, there was some quickening of activity, especially in copper, zinc and iron.

Jan 2, 1922

By Robert G. Johnson, Richard J. Prosen

THE present work was done in connection with a program for investigating metal-to-ceramic braze techniques using the well-known reactivity of titanium with certain ceramic oxides. The investigation extended over the range of 0 to 30 pct Ti. The indium was obtained from the Indium Corp. of America and was specified to be 99.97 pct pure. The titanium was supplied by Metals Disintegrating Co. and was stated to be 99.5 pct pure. Each 2 to 4 g quantity of the alloy compositions studied was prepared using a mixture of 300 mesh powders pressed into pellet form. The pellets were heated in thin-walled molybdenum crucibles using a resistance-wound furnace in a vacuum less than 10-4 mm of Hg. Little reaction occurred between the molten alloy and the crucibles at the temperatures and short time intervals used. Only slight spectroscopic traces of molybdenum were found in the melt after a typical period of heating. The points shown on the phase diagram of Fig. 1 represent thermal arrest measurements. The phase boundaries shown are consistent with the thermal arrest and X-ray data obtained. The temperatures were determined using a Pt-Pt 10 pct Rh thermocouple with the junction spot-welded to a short molybdenum rod. The rod was almost completely immersed in the liquid metal, so that good thermal contact with the melt was achieved. The small mass of the crucible and its contents made it possible to obtain many heating and cooling curves in a few minutes time, an advantage which helped to minimize the effects of indium evaporation at the higher temperatures. A Brown strip chart recorder was used to display the thermal arrest curves. To check the technique, the melting point of 99.999 pure Al was measured and found to be within 1 of 660.2c, the accepted melting point. The upper limit of temperature with this technique was about 900°C beyond which the evaporation rate of indium became great enough to alter appreciably the alloy composition during the runs. A peritectic transition was found at 796°+ 5°C from 1.5 to 30 wt pct Ti. It was not found at 0.5 or 1.0 pct. A small super-cooling effect was observed. The melting-point transition to the B + L phase was found up to 20 pct Ti but not at 25 pct. Within the 1 deg accuracy of the measurement, the transition temperature was that of pure indium, 156°C. The liquidus line to the left of the 1.5 titanium point was located only approximately. The two crossed circle points at 1.0 and 0.5 pct Ti place a lower limit on the liquidus line and were determined by observing visually the cessation of vibrations in the melt caused by the damping effect as B-phase crystals were formed during cooling. The B-phase boundary was found at 23.8 pct Ti by X-ray analyses of small single crystals of the B phase isolated from 2 pct Ti melts. The compound was found to be Jetragonal with lattice dimensions of c = 3.052A and a = 10.094W. From the unit cell dimensions and the measured density of 6.42 i 0.05 g per cc, the compound was determined to be In4Ti3 which has 23.8 pct Ti. The calculated density of 6.44 g per cc is obtained assuming 2 mol

Jan 1, 1962

By P. D. Merica

MY remarks are addressed to the question whether a program of international mineral control can effectively serve as a means of maintaining world peace in the kind of world envisaged by the Atlantic Charter. They do not touch the quite different questions whether such control could be appropriately used for postwar punishment of Germany and Japan, or for other purposes. I assume also that the question relates, not to the transition period immediately following the war, but to the more normal years which we hope will succeed this. Finally, they deal primarily with metals and metallic minerals rather than with. oil or coal or other minerals, although they may be applicable also to these other nonmetallic materials.

Jan 1, 1944

By R. S. Handy

The No. 2 unit of the West Mill of the Bunker Hill & Sullivan Mining & Concentrating Co., which went into commission Apr. 17, 1912, is structurally a twin of the No. 1 unit, which was started Nov. 9, 1909. Up to the point where the ore enters the concentrating-de-partment, it follows precisely the process described by G. Cae-tani in his article entitled, Milling of Lead-Silver Ores,' under the heading, Preparation of the Mill-Ore. The process from this point forward, in the No. 2 section, is outlined on the accompanying flow-sheet. In describing it I shall attempt to analyze the products of each separate process. The constancy of the tonnage and the uniformity of the quality of the feed render this practicable. No. 1.—550 tons of feed, all having passed 30 mm., is washed into two 15-mm. trommels, 4 ft, in diameter, 60 in. long, 17 rev. per min., 1 in. slope, 3/8-in. gauge steel.

Jan 1, 1913

Jan 1, 1936

Jan 1, 1935

By H. R. Peiffer

Hardening of soft metals can be accomplished by dispersing finely divided hard particles in them. The dispersing of finely divided alumina in silver in the presence of oxygen yields a high strength material which is unusual in that its mechanical properties above the melting point of the continuous Ag-O alloy matrix are similar to other solids. The tensile strength is studied for two of these alloys, one of which contains 15 pct by weight alumina and the other 20 pct by weight alumina. The average fracture strengths above 960°C of these alloys were found to be 0.4 x106 dynes per sq cm and 3.8x106 dynes per sq cm respectively. The strengths appenred to be independent of temperature above 960° C. The creep behavior of the 20 pct alumina material was studied above 960°C. The initial creep rate, 6 , of this material can be represented by where s is the applied stress and E the activation energy for the process. This energy is of the order of 1.7 to 2.1 ev. HARDENING of soft metals by the addition of finely divided, hard particles has resulted in the production of materials with excellent creep resistance and with inhibited recrystallization.' It has been demonstrated that such composites have useful strength up to temperatures very near the melting point of the soft metals, but one might expect that the strengthening by the dispersed particles ceases to be of importance above the melting point of the softer phase. This, however, is not so.2 In this paper the strengthening of a liquid Ag-O solution by the presence of dispersed alumina is discussed and experimental data concerning the mechanical properties of such a material at temperatures above 960°C presented. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Specimens were prepared using powder metallurgical techniques. Finely divided silver oxide was mixed in the appropriate proportions with "Linde B" alumina. For these experiments the specimens contained 15 or 20 wt pct alumina in pure silver.* These alloys were used in these experiments since they were the ones that could be handled readily enough to yield experimental data. Silver oxide was used in preference to silver because it is readily available in a very finely divided form and because the presence of excess oxygen in the silver is important to the properties2 of the material. The powders were mixed wet, using alcohol as the medium, in an ordinary food blender until a uniform mixture was obtained. They were then dried and heated to reduce the silver oxide to silver. Only a fraction of the finely divided silver remains unoxi-dized upon removal from the oven since the finest particles of silver oxidize immediately upon contact with air. The remaining fine silver served as a binder during pressing. The mixture was then pressed at 20 tons per sq in. into shoulder-grip (reduced section 1/4 in. by l/4 in. by 1 1/4 in.) and rectangular bar specimens (l/4 in. by 1/4 in. by 2 in.). The green specimens were heated very rapidly in a globar furnace to 1000°C, held at temperature untic they had reached theoretical density and then furnace cooled. The strength of the two compositions at temperatures above 960 °C was determined by pulling shoulder grip specimens inside a furnace mounted on a tensile machine. Specimens were gripped by means of wires wrapped around the shoulders of the specimen. Temperatures were measured by means of a chro-mel-alumel thermo-couple placed in the vicinity of the specimen. Control of temperature (within ±°15C) was accomplished by means of a Weston Recorder-Controller. Before loading, specimens were held at temperature for approximately 15 min in order to insure uniform specimen temperature. The low loads were measured by a special load cell designed by Baldwin Lima Hamilton. All testing was performed on a FGT testing machine of the same com-pany. Creep studies were performed in bending utilizing rectangular specimens of the 20 pct alumina alloy. Specimens supported at both ends by knife edges of inconel were placed in a globar furnace, heated quickly to temperature, and the deflection of the beam measured optically as a function of time. The weight and size of the specimen were predetermined and the maximum stress on the beam calculated from

Jan 1, 1962

By K. E. Brown, F. W. Jessen

By utilizing an 8,000-ft experimental field well equipped with 10 gas-lift valves and 10 Maihak pressure recorders, gas-lift tests were conducted with port sizes ranging from 5/16 through I in. The well was equipped to provide accurate means of measuring surface pressures, temperatures, quantity of injection gas and fluid production. The tests were conducted in 2%-in. OD tubing, and the well was making 95 per cent water. A complete evaluation of gas-lift-valve port sizes shows the relationship of per cent recovery, gas-liquid ratios, minimum pressure created at the operating valve and horsepower requirements for each port. The length of time necessary for the fluid in the tubing to reach equilib.rium conditions after each cycle was recorded. Fallback of fluid at depths of 477, 969, 1,685, 2,493 and 4,290 ft was noted. For each port size, pressure loads of 2.50, 300, 350, 400 and 450 psi were lifted with a valve operating at approximately 550 psi at 6,000 ft. Gas-liquid ratios for each load were varied from excess gas to a gas volume per cycle whereby the load failed to reach the surface. Numerous curves are presented in evaluating the accumulated dara. The results show a 1-in. port to be the most efficient under all conditions. The production of intermittent liquid slugs against different-sized surface chokes was evaluated. These tests were conducted from a 7/16-in. ported valve at 4,072 ft. Tests indicate that, when possible, a %-in. in diameter choke or larger should be used at the surface. In the past few years most of the advancement in gas-lift operations has been made in continuous-flow operations. Yet, it is estimated that at least 70 per cent of the wells on gas lift in the United States are of the intermittent type. Since the term "slug flow" is sometimes used in both intermittent- and continuous-flow operations, it would be well to distinguish between the two types of flow. Continuous-flow gas lift is defined as a method whereby the fluids are produced at a continuous rate at the surface. This generally requires a continuous injection of gas through a surface choke; however, various other control devices sometimes are installed to eliminate freezing, to shut-off gas during natural flow periods, etc. The actual flow of fluids in the tubing may be of the slug type (one of many flow patterns known to exist in continuous flow). Intermittent flow is defined as a method of gas lift whereby the liquid is produced in separate piston-type slugs. Perhaps this type of flow could best be thought of as a ballistic-type flow where the liquid leaves bottom as a piston, propelled by a slug of expanding gas. Gas generally is injected through some type of control at the surface at predetermined intervals. However, the valve may have characteristics whereby gas can be injected through a small choke and still result in a ballistic-type flow. The purpose of the experimental work was to evaluate the most efficient port size to be used on the operating valve for the ballistic type of lift and, in addition, to establish the importance of utilizing a surface choke large enough to allow slugs to be produced without detrimental effects. This work is part of a compre- hensive study of both intermittent-and continuous-flow gas lift, representing a joint project conducted by the Ohio Oil Co., the Sun Oil Co., Otis Engineering Corp, and The U. of Texas. The problem of evaluating port sizes has been given little previous attention. Some work undoubtedly has been done which has not been published to date. Some tests were conducted when the wireline, mechanically-opened valve (Nixon) first came on the market. This valve was capable of utilizing full tubing area as its port size. It is known that this was a very efficient valve, but to the authors' knowledge the results of tests have never been published. EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT These tests were conducted on an actual field well, the Ohio-Sun Unit Well No. 2-E, in the North Markham-North Bay City field, Matagorda County, Tex. The well incorporated 23/8-in. OD tubing and produced 95 per cent water. Since the running of equipment was to be quite elaborate and expensive, a well was selected in which both intermittent- and continuous-flow tests could be conducted. This particular well was capable of producing in excess of 1,000 B/D of liquid (95 per cent salt water), yet with a 3/64-in. in diameter bottom-hole choke, production was controlled to 82 B/D. Most of the intermittent tests were conducted at this low rate. Figs. 1 and 2 show all the surface and down-hole equipment. As can be seen, every attempt was made to insure that ample equipment was available for reliable testing procedures. Fig. 1 shows the surface testing equipment. The input gas was controlled first by a regulator, then

By G. E. Agar, A. L. Mular

G. E. Agar (Manager, Minerals Processing Research, International Minerals & Chemical Corp., Skokie, III.) — The author notes a discrepancy between the parameters a and ß which are the slopes of the size distribution and energy-size modulus plots respectively. The reason for the discrepancy and the systematic decrease in the magnitude of a with grinding time is abundantly clear from the work of Fuerstenau8 on dry grinding. Fuerstenau shows very clearly in his Fig. 5 that at short retention times the parameter a is the same as that obtained by sizing over the complete size range. From this figure, it is obvious that sizing to only 400 mesh gave distribution curves similar to Mular's - that is, the slope apparently decreased systematically with increased grinding. As a consequence of the improper determination of a, the magnitude of ß given by Mular must be larger than the true value. In order to demonstrate this, the following Fig. 6 was taken from Mular's paper (his Fig. 1). Fuer-stenau's results show that we can approximate the correct value of K by drawing lines parallel to the short retention time curves through the 400-mesh

Jan 1, 1963

By B. Sadtler

The oldest producing district of Park county, and in fact one of the oldest producing gold-districts of the State, is situated on the head-waters of the Platte and tributary streams. Geo-

Jan 1, 1897

By P. Ramakrishnan, Ramjilal

Fine powders of lead zirconate titanate have been prepared by three different methods such as ball milling, conventional coprecipitation and spray drying. Different powders have also been prepared by changing the process variables in each method. These powders were analysed for particle size chemical composition and reactivity. DTA, TGA and x-ray analysis have been carried out to study the lead zirconate titanate formation with reference to calcination temperatures. The calcined powders were then consolidated by compaction and sintering. An attempt has bean made to explain the consolidation behaviour of these powders on the basis of powder characteristics.

Jan 1, 1980

THE Council of the Geological Society of America has named its gold medal after R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., who recognized the need of such an award and supplied the endowment. The medal is to be awarded for achievement in pure science and may be given to a worker of any race or nation. Mr. Penrose, whose own professional work has been mainly in applied geology, had previously established a medal fund for the Society of Economic Geologists. This was awarded to T. C. Chamberlin at the meet-ing of that Society at Cornell University in 1924. The new medal is to be given on the recommendation of the G. S. A. Council, but not necessarily every year.

Jan 4, 1927

THE CHAIRMAN (G. C. STONE, New York, N. Y.).-It is a matter of history that the smelting of zinc ore in, a reverberatory furnace was the first process used in this country for making oxide of zinc, and it was abandoned for three reasons: it was very expensive, the recovery was, very poor, and the color of the oxide was worse. It is probable, however, that the Anaconda company is working in a totally different way. While Mr. Ingalls does not say so, my own suspicion is that they are using coal-dust firing, very much as they do in the copper furnaces, and by that method there is much more chance of getting good recovery.

Jan 1, 1918

By G. F. Comstock

The subject of transverse fissures in steel rails has been discussed very thoroughly in recent years from various points of view and the final opinions expressed may be roughly classified into two groups: That these fissures are the result merely of fatigue of the steel and are independent of the quality of the metal. That the quality of the metal and the mill practice must have something to do with them. The first point of view was most ably and logically presented by J. E. Howard,' and in the discussion of this paper, as well as in several other preceding publications, Dr. P. H. Dudley, Consulting Engineer of the New York Central Lines, has strongly defended the other opinion.2 The steel makers of the country have naturally rallied under Mr. Howard's banner, hoping to place the entire blame for these failures upon the railroads with their high wheel-loads, hard steel, heavy traffic, and sometimes inferior road-bed; while the railroad men, on the other hand, have been busy accumulating statistics and records in the effort to find an actual reason in the rails themselves that would account for the seemingly haphazard occurrence of transverse fissures under varying conditions and at widely separated points. The view that these fissures were due merely to normal fatigue under alternating stresses seemed most reasonable to the writer until quite recently, because from work done in this laboratory, as well as the work of other investigators, of the problem, no structural differences, in the vast majority of cases, were found between metal at the nuclei of transverse fissures and metal at similar positions in the same rails or in other rails that had not developed fissures. Within the last year or two, however, since the method of etching polished sections for the microscope with a oupric chloride solution has been tried systematically on lengthwise sections, passing through the nuclei of transverse fissures, evidence

Jan 1, 1920