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By H. D. Wilde

DURING 1934 conditions in the production division of the petroleum industry were reasonably satisfactory but nevertheless a decided feeling of insecurity existed largely because of the uncertainty of controlling production to consumptive demand. Over-production, especially in the East Texas field, threatened a general collapse of crude prices but in spite of this, posted prices were high. Stimulated by the prevailing posted prices, wildcatting activities were wide-spread. Although a number of small discoveries were made, particularly in the Gulf Coast belt and Oklahoma, no fields of major importance, unless it was the Fitts pool in Southern Oklahoma, were brought in. Meanwhile, the Petroleum Division of the A.I.M.E. continued its activities. It sponsored the collection of production and geological data on both foreign and domestic fields. The data on all but a few producing districts in the world were published in the "Petroleum Development and Technology" volume of the "Transactions" and comprise one of the most complete tabula¬tions of this sort ever published. Work of this kind is being continued.

Jan 1, 1935

By A. O. Drysdale

In Canada, the market for cement is not a national one but rather a collection of local or regional markets. Excess capacity on a national basis does not necessarily preclude a shortage on a regional basis. with portland cement selling for less than a cent a pound, the low price-to-weight factor makes transportation to the market a major cost item and thus a small plant can be justified to serve a limited regional market. The Brookfield plant of the Canada Cement Co. is designed to supply the Province of Nova Scotia, a regional market that shows promise of growing to a point where it will support a one-kiln plant. The market is presently being served by boat shipments from the Canada Cement Co. plant at Montreal East, Quebec, and from the North Star Cement Ltd. plant at Corner Brook, Newfoundland, and by rail and road shipments from the Canada Cement Co. plant at Havelock, N. B.

Jan 4, 1965

By E. R. Borcherdt

Methods and equipment are subject to study in the Butte district at all times in order that advantage may be taken of any new developments that might serve to increase efficiency and lower costs. Detailed time studies of each operation involved in the entire mining process have been of invaluable assistance in analyzing the individual operation for possible improvement. In other words, the fact that a practice has been in vogue for many years does not exempt it from change provided an easier and cheaper method can be found. Exploration Ore occurs in the Butte district in such manner that structures must be drifted on, no matter how small or unimportant they appear when intersected by a crosscut. Parallel structures also add to the crosscut requirements. This prospecting work, which formerly was done entirely by drifting and crosscutting, is now being supplemented by diamond drilling, to aid in greatly decreasing the amount of waste. In long-shot prospecting, or in second or third class prospecting, where the chances of developing commercial ore are not very great, diamond drilling is of particular value. In prospecting where chances of encountering commercial ore are certain or where crosscuts can be used later for haulage or ventilation, drilling obviously is not applicable. Improvement in drilling machines and bits has contributed greatly to the present success of diamond drilling. For many Years square-set filled stoping was the principal mining method used in the Butte district. Later timbered and untimbered rill stopes were used, also some horizontal cut-and-fill stoping where both Ore and walls were particularly strong. Because of the amount of timber required for square-set stoping, and the relatively low production per stope unit, experiments with horizontal cut-and-fill stopes were begun in Ore bodies of which many had fairly weak walls. It was felt that increase in the speed of the stoping operation, followed closely by filling, to avoid weight being produced by permitting ore and walls to remain insufficiently supported over comparatively long periods, would maintain the walls and backs in safe condition without the use of timber and without ore dilution from wall slough. Cycles of drilling, scraping ore, and filling were devised, which have materially increased stope production and decreased timber consumption, so that both stope labor and supply costs were lowered appreciably without materially affecting grade control. In the larger mines of the district, where wide veins favor this stoping method, half of the total production is now being mined by horizontal cut-and-fill stopes (Fig. I). The increase of the filling rate demanded by the increased stoping rate was the greatest obstacle encountered in the accelerated stoping operations. Finally this problem was solved by replacing the time-honored method of transferring filling waste by small cars, which were hoisted or lowered in the auxiliary shaft, by a transfer

Jan 1, 1943

By E. R. Borcherdt

Methods and equipment are subject to study in the Butte district at all times in order that advantage may be taken of any new developments that might serve to increase efficiency and lower costs. Detailed time studies of each operation involved in the entire mining process have been of invaluable assistance in analyzing the individual operation for possible improvement. In other words, the fact that a practice has been in vogue for many years does not exempt it from change provided an easier and cheaper method can be found. Exploration Ore occurs in the Butte district in such manner that structures must be drifted on, no matter how small or unimportant they appear when intersected by a crosscut. Parallel structures also add to the crosscut requirements. This prospecting work, which formerly was done entirely by drifting and crosscutting, is now being supplemented by diamond drilling, to aid in greatly decreasing the amount of waste. In long-shot prospecting, or in second or third class prospecting, where the chances of developing commercial ore are not very great, diamond drilling is of particular value. In prospecting where chances of encountering commercial ore are certain or where crosscuts can be used later for haulage or ventilation, drilling obviously is not applicable. Improvement in drilling machines and bits has contributed greatly to the present success of diamond drilling. For many Years square-set filled stoping was the principal mining method used in the Butte district. Later timbered and untimbered rill stopes were used, also some horizontal cut-and-fill stoping where both Ore and walls were particularly strong. Because of the amount of timber required for square-set stoping, and the relatively low production per stope unit, experiments with horizontal cut-and-fill stopes were begun in Ore bodies of which many had fairly weak walls. It was felt that increase in the speed of the stoping operation, followed closely by filling, to avoid weight being produced by permitting ore and walls to remain insufficiently supported over comparatively long periods, would maintain the walls and backs in safe condition without the use of timber and without ore dilution from wall slough. Cycles of drilling, scraping ore, and filling were devised, which have materially increased stope production and decreased timber consumption, so that both stope labor and supply costs were lowered appreciably without materially affecting grade control. In the larger mines of the district, where wide veins favor this stoping method, half of the total production is now being mined by horizontal cut-and-fill stopes (Fig. I). The increase of the filling rate demanded by the increased stoping rate was the greatest obstacle encountered in the accelerated stoping operations. Finally this problem was solved by replacing the time-honored method of transferring filling waste by small cars, which were hoisted or lowered in the auxiliary shaft, by a transfer

Jan 1, 1943

[A discussion suggested by the paper of Mr. James Gsyley on " The Development of American Blast-Furnaces," read at the New York meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, October, 1890, and reprinted from the Journal of that Society in Bans. A. I. M. E., xix., 932.1 (Cleveland Meeting, June, 1891.) [Kote by the SecretaRy.—The three following contributions to this discussion were communicated by letter to the Secretary of the Iron and Steel Institute, and were received by me too late for insertion in vol. xix. of the Transactions.] FRed. W. Gordon, Philadelphia, Pa.: Mr. Gayley's paper calls our attention to the very expensive blunder hitherto made in blowing too much wind in a given size of furnace. It was quite evident from an analysis of blast-furnace operations that the work we are doing in America is anything but creditable. We were consuming fully 1000 pounds of coke more than is necessary for each ton of iron made, and were hammering the linings of our furnaces out in a very short time, and nothing but the very high price of pig-iron would stand the drain. It had long been my pet scheme to gradually reduce the quantity of air, at the same time increasing the burden to the maximum and decreasing the limestone, and determining, if possible, the fuel economy which might be reached consistently with the maximum production of the furnace. After the success of the Isabella furnace at Pittsburgh, which was remodelled in 1880, the North Chicago Rolling Mill Company had

Jan 1, 1892

By Hans Von Höfer

Apart from the hypothesis of a cosmic origin (which failed of acceptance because it was not adequately supported by facts), the only important controversy concerning the origin of petroleum has been, for a long time, between the advocates of inorganic and of organic origin respectively. Each of these theories has had a long history of development, and is still being perfected, under the influence of two causes: (1) the increasingly extensive and thorough study of the oil-fields (of which new examples are periodically discovered and opened); and (2) the progress of synthetic experiments devoted to this question. Moreover, the advance in our physical and chemical knowledge of the properties of this peculiar natural product has necessarily modified all criticism of conflicting views. I. The Hypothesis of Inorganic Origin That the nation of an inorganic origin of petroleum, first set forth by Berthelot in 1866, and afterward ingeniously developed and formulated by Mendelejeff, should thus have proceeded chiefly from chemists, is quite natural; for the question was one of possible chemical processes in the earth's interior, and of imagined chemical reactions to be verified by ex-periment. Hypotheses of this kind were suggested by many chemists, of whom two, P. Sabatier and J. H. Senderens, may be specially named by reason of their highly interesting chemical experiments. Among geologists, Mendelejeff's hypothesis was received at first with much interest and favor; for it rested on the assumption of a central terrestrial mass of iron carbide, and the geologists had good reasons for adopting that assumption. Yet comparatively few of them attempted to furnish geological proofs of the hypothesis: the majority either silently believed in it, or for one or another reason rejected it altogether. An apparently weighty support of Mendelejeff's view was furnished by the American, G. F. Becker, who found in the oil-regions of the United States important and abnormal disturbances of the isogons of terrestrial magnetism, and inferred that in these regions the central iron mass must

Jan 1, 1915

By F. A. Crossley

The titanium-rich end of the Ti-A1 system has been investigated up to 35 at. pct A1 (23 wt pet). One conzpound Ti3Al was found to occur between primary a and TiAl. It is ordered hcp with DO19 structure, it has virtually no solid-solubility range, and it has a closed maximum at about 875°C. OIL either side of the compound are a +Ti3Al two-phase fields. The limiting a1uminum solubility in primary a at the titanium-rich end is indicated to be 7.5 at. pct A1 (4.4 wt pet) at 550°C and about 6.8 at. pct Al fl wt pct) at 500°C. Quenching alloys from above the a + Ti3Al two-phase field produces the following structures with respect to alloy composition: Up to 13 at. pct A1 (7.8 wt pet), a solid solution; from 15 to 18 at. pct A1 (9 to 11 wt pct), shear transformation product or martensite; from 19 to approximately 30 at. pct (11 to 19 wt pet), submicro-scopic coherent Ti3Al in an a malvix. The twin hcp phase fields reported in the literature are the result of nonequilibrium corzdztions. Ti-A1 alloys, once partitioned by dwelling- in the a + ß phase field during either hot working or heat treatment, are extremely difjicult to homogenize at temperatures below 1000°C. Such partitioned alloys exhibit the characteristics or symptoms of two-phase materials, and may be said to suffer the "twin-phase syndrome". THE earliest investigations of the Ti-A1 system by Ogden et al.1 and Bumps et al.2 reported wide solubility of the primary solid solutions. Aluminum was reported soluble in the low-temperature allomorph to the extent of 37 at. pct (25 wt pct), and the first intermediate phase was reportedly TiA1. Somewhat later Kornilov et al.3 reported a similar diagram with phase boundaries displaced towards lower aluminum contents and higher temperatures. Beginning about this time (1956) reports in the literature made it very clear that one or more intermediate phases occurred at lower aluminum contents than TiAl.4-17 These reports included five major investigations of the titanium-rich end of the Ti-A1 diagram.4,12,14,16,17 Three of these diagrams show two two-phase fields below 37 at. pct Al, while two of them show a single two-phase field. The existence of the phase Ti3A1 is firmly established and is included in each of the diagrams, except one—that of Sato and Huang.12 The new phases are reportedly hcp and differ from primary a only slightly when disordered, and when ordered the "a" parameter is approximately one,4,12,15 two, 6-10,13,14 or four14 times that for primary a. Beyond this, however, the diagrams are remarkable for their lack of agreement. Two tacit assumptions are usually made in phase-diagram determinations of metal systems. These are: 1) equilibrium anneals bring the alloy to equilibrium or to indistinguishable closeness to it, and 2) equilibrium conditions established at elevated temperatures are either "frozen" by rapid quenching for evaluation at room temperature, or quench-transformation products are recognized as such. In the current investigation evidence was obtained that over substantial composition ranges neither of these two conditions was met in any of the more recent major investigations. I) MATERIALS, METHODS, AND TECHNIQUES The alloys of this investigation were prepared by nonc on sum able electrode arc melting. Materials used in the preparation of the alloys are summarized in Table I. The investigative tools employed were: optical and electron microscopy, differential thermal analysis (DTA), disatometry, X-ray diffraction, electron diffraction, and resistometry. Alloys for microscopic and X-ray investigations were prepared as 15-g melts. Alloys containing from 7 through 11 at. pct A1 were hot-rolled out of a furnace at 900°C, from 12 through 15 at. pct out of a furnace at 1000°C, and from 16 through 18 at. pct out of a furnace at 1125°C. Alloys containing more than 18 at. pct A1 could not be hot-rolled. The ingots were covered with Markal coating prior to hot rolling to minimize atmospheric contamination. After hot rolling, alloys containing up to 15 at. pct A1 were ground and pickled to remove 7 mils from each surface; alloys containing 16 and 18 at. pct A1 were skinned to a

Jan 1, 1967

FINAL REPORT OF' THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGICAL ENGINEERS W. E. FOHL, Chairman J. W. PAUL J. M. RAYBURN C. A. WARNER JOHN B. CORRIN C. E. KREBS JOHN H. WILSON A. W. HESSE M. M. LEIGHTON H. I. SMITH [Accepted and Committee discharged with thanks, April 27, 1928.] Regulations recommended for the location, drilling, casing, protection, operation, plugging and filling, and abandonment of natural gas and petroleum wells; having for their objectives the protection of life and property by prevention of intrusions of oil and gas into workable coal beds, and the conservation of oil and gas resources in territory not underlain with workable coal beds. ARTICLE I DEFINITIONS SEC. 1. For the purpose of these regulations, definitions are as follows: Well.-A bore hole drilled for the purpose of developing natural gas or petroleum, or a bore hole producing natural gas or petroleum. Well Operator.-Any person, persons, firm, partnership, corporation, company or association that proposes to, or does drill, operate or abandon a well as herein defined. Coal Operator.-Any person, persons, firm, partnership, corporation, company or association that proposes to, or does operate a coal mine in territory known or reputed to be underlain with oil or gas-bearing strata. Coal Owner.-Any person, persons, firm, partnership, corporation, company or association, other than a Coal Operator as herein defined, that owns coal lands in territory known or reputed to be underlain with oil or gas-bearing strata. State Mining Department.-The duly constituted authorities of a state having jurisdiction over coal-mining operations, and oil and gas operations as herein provided. Plat.-A map, drawing or print made in accordance with the provisions of these regulations. Casing.-The pipe commonly used in wells drilled for natural gas and petroleum. Oil and Gas.-Synonyms, respectively, for Petroleum and Natural Gas.

Jan 1, 1928

By J. A. Berger, G. W. Wiener

Several transition metal nitrides have been prepared and their saturation magnetization determined. On the basis of an atomic model of ferromagnetism involving a consideration of nearest neighbor interactions and the assumption that all atomic moments of the metal point in the same direction, it appears that the nitrogen interacts with d-shell of the transition metal in such a way as to reduce the magnetic moment. THERE is a large class of materials having metallic properties which are formed by a combination of hydrogen, boron, carbon, oxygen, or nitrogen with the transition metals. Several attempts have been made to establish the type of metal-nonmetal bonding in these interstitial alloys because it is believed that many of the physical properties of these materials are determined by the characteristics of this bond. Several of these alloys are ferromagnetic, and thus a powerful method is available for investigating the structures in a direct manner by measuring the saturation magnetization. The latter is a fundamental property of ferromagnetic metals and alloys which depends primarily on the electron distribution surrounding the atom. For the first row of transition metals, this refers specifically to the 3 d-shell. Since bonding involves the electronic configuration between atoms, there is reason to suppose that a relationship exists between ferromagnetism and bond type. In the case of the interstitial structures studied in this work, bonding will refer to the distribution of electrons between the transition metal and the nonmetal. Since these alloys have metallic properties, it is further proposed that any bonding interactions will involve the outer p-shell of the interstitial element and the incomplete d-shell of the transition metal. If this is the case, then the relationship between ferromagnetism and metal-non-metal bonding is established qualitatively. In order to investigate the subject quantitatively, certain transition metal nitrides were chosen because they have simple crystal structures, are ordered alloys, and are ferromagnetic. They also have sufficiently high saturation magnetization to be of technical interest. Currently there are two major theories of ferromagnetism, each of which has been applied to the interpretation of the saturation magnetization in terms of atomic structure. They are usually referred to as the band theory and the atomic theory. The former has found widespread application to the study of pure metals and certain solid-solution allays. However, it has not been applied to the interstitial structures or ordered alloys because it does not interpret the properties directly in terms of the crystal structure. The atomic theory on the other hand is especially suited to the study of interstitial structures because it permits an interpretation of ferromagnetic phenomena in terms of the crystal geometry. As has been pointed out previously, the nitrides have simple ordered crystal structures and, therefore, the choice of the atomic theory for the interpretation of the data is a natural one. One of the prime difficulties with the atomistic theory is that its mathematical justification is much more difficult, and for this reason its general acceptance will depend to a large extent on the value it has in explaining and predicting the results of experiment. Before the presentation of the theoretical basis for understanding the metal-nonmetal bond, it is useful to review the ideas existing prior to this work. Four different interpretations have been given to the metal-nonmetal bond. These are summarized as follows: 1—acceptance of electrons by the nonmetal from the incomplete d-shell of the transition metal, 2—transfer of electrons from the nonmetal to the incomplete shell of the transition metal, 3—no exchange of electrons between the two atoms, and 4— a resonating type of bond involving the p electrons of the interstitial atom giving rise to half bonds. Zener'-4 in a recent series of papers has proposed a new theory of ferromagnetism and has developed an explanation of the observed saturation magnetization of iron nitride (Fe,N) using the concept that nitrogen accepts electrons from the 3d-shell of iron. Jack," on the basis of atom size considerations in iron carbonitrides, has proposed that nitrogen transfers or donates electrons to the inner 3d-shell. He found that the effective size of the carbon atom was less than that of nitrogen and thus suggested that the interstitial atoms give up electrons. Kiessling" has studied the borides of several transition metal atoms and proposed that boron loses one p electron to the transition metal. He postulated that the additional electron added to the metal lattice compensates for the loss in metallic properties which results from the increased metal-metal atom separation. GuillaudT3" has proposed similar arguments from some recent magnetic studies he had made on manganese nitride. However, he did not base his conclusions on a quantitative argument. Pauling," in a recent paper, discussed electron transfer in in-termetallic compounds. He classified nitrogen as a hyperelectronic atom which can increase its valence by giving up electrons. He classified the transition metals as buffer atoms which are capable of either accepting or giving UP an electron. He pointed out that two factors are operating which promote electron transfer because they lead to increased stability. The first is an increase in the number of bonds, and the second is a decrease in the electric charges on the atoms. These ideas when applied to the interstitial nitrides would indicate a viewpoint favoring electron transfer by nitrogen to the transition metal. Hagg7s arguments in favor of no exchange are adequately summarized by Wells." Implicitly, Hagg

Jan 1, 1956

By E. C. Harder

The situation in the United States, at the present time, regarding the supply of manganese ores and alloys of manganese is one of great seriousness and is likely to become increasingly so while the European war continues. The two principal iron-manganese alloys, ferromanganese and splegel-eisen, are indispensable in steel manufacture, being used extensively in the Bessemer and open-hearth processes. Spiegeleisen, the lower alloy, contains between 15 and 25 per cent., and ferromanganese, the higher alloy, between 60 and 80 per cent., of manganese. Besides manganese the alloys contain iron and carbon. On the market ferromanganese is usually quoted on the basis of 80 per cent. manganese, and spiegeleisen on the basis of 20 per cent. manganese. The consumption of ferromanganese has been increasing during recent years at the expense of spiegeleisen, because larger quantities of the latter must be used to accomplish the same purpose with the result that the amount of carbon introduced with it into the molten metal is frequently injuriously great. Manganese ore proper, in the form of manganese dioxide, is used extensively in many chemical industries, especially for oxidizing purposes. It is also used for the manufacture of both wet and dry electric cells and in the manufacture of paints and dyes. The manganese ore used in this country has been derived hitherto from three principal sources: Southern Russia, Southern British India and East Central Brazil. The following tables show the quantity of manganese ore imported from these countries, and (for comparison) the domestic production, during 1912, 1913 and 1914. The imported manganese ore has been used largely in the manufacture of iron-manganese alloys and in addition large quantities of the alloys themselves have been imported, chiefly from Great Britain, Germany and other European countries.

Jan 1, 1917

By B. W. Gandrud

WET-PROCESS coal-washing tables as we know them today have been in use in this country for approximately 25 years. The literature records only a few table installations worthy of note prior to adoption of the present-day differential-motion table. According to Phillips,' six Campbell bumping tables were being operated by the St. Bernard Coal Co., Earlington, Ky., in 11893. As late as 1923, according to Richardson, 2 72 such tables were in operation in the Rosedale washery of the Cambria Steel Co., at Johnstown, Pa. Bumping tables probably were not used to any considerable extent except in the plant at Earlington, and at two or three plants in Pennsylvania, but they may be considered as forerunners of the present-day coal-washing table. The transition from bumping tables to the type of tables now in use signalized a revolutionary change in table design. The advantages of the new design over the old were so outstanding as to make its adoption inevitable. BUMPING TABLES Bumping tables, as the name implies, utilized a bumping action for conveying the refuse and discharging it over the refuse end. The tables were hung from rods attached to overhead supporting beams. A shaft and cam arrangement at one end of the table served as the actuating mechanism and imparted to the table an endwise, back-and-forth, swinging motion. A bumping block was fixed in the proper position at the shaft end, so that the table would strike against it at the end of each backward swing. The hanger rods or stirrups were so adjusted as to give the table a slight uphill slope toward the refuse end; that is, the end next to the driving mechanism. The feed box was near the upper end, of the table and designed to spread the mixture of coal and water over the width of the table. Wash water was added a short distance below the feed box with the table in motion and coal mixed with water being fed to it through the feed box, a certain amount of stratification took place, depositing heavy refuse at the bottom of the bed in contact with the surface of the table. Constant bumping and a certain amount of

Jan 1, 1943

By D. L. Archer, W. W. Owens

Conventional waterflooding often is uneconomic in highly fractured reservoirs because of the gross bypassing of the reservoir oil by injected water. Imbibition and pressure pulse flooding have been used in at least one fractured reservoir in an attempt to achieve better oil recovery performance. This paper presents the results of laboratory flow tests conducted on large cores to evaluate the possible applicability of these methods (particularly pressure pulse flooding) to different types of reservoir systems. Test data were obtained on both water-wet and oil-wet systems, and on systems having two widely different levels of compressibility and flow capacity. Results indicate that pressure pulse recoveries from fractured reservoirs will likely not exceed 5 to 10 per cent pore space with maximum response achieved during the first pulse cycle. Improved recovery by this method is possible from both oil-wet and water-wet reservoirs. Comparable saturation distributions during imbibition and pressure pulse production suggest that an initial pressure pulse cycle to speed production response would not interfere with subsequent imbibition flooding in water-wet reservoirs. INTRODUCTION There is a steady increase in the number of fluid injection projects being initiated each year to improve oil and gas recovery over that obtained by primary production mechanisms. Experience gained in different geographical areas and with different recovery methods is teaching that reservoir anatomy is one of the more important factors controlling the success or failure of such projects. Fractured formations appear to be the rule rather than the exception, especially in carbonate reservoirs. Conventional methods of fluid injection, whether it is waterflooding, gas injection or miscible flooding, have limited applicability to highly fractured reservoirs because of the severe bypassing of reservoir fluids. The result is early breakthrough of the injected fluid and rapidly increasing ratios of injected to in-place fluid with an undesirable effect on return on investment. Thus, innovations to conventional methods must be developed if recovery from fractured reservoirs is to be optimized. One new method proposed for application to highly fractured reservoirs is pressure pulse waterflooding. Although pressure pulsing with gas has been suggested' and rested in at least one reservoir; the Sohio Oil Co. is generally credited with the development and testing of pressure pulsing in conjunction with waterflooding. Publications" of Sohio's waterflood operations in the Spra-berry Trend indicate that the idea for pressure pulse flooding evolved from a critical analysis of the disappointing early performance of their flood initiated in a portion of the trend in April, 1961. This flood was planned to take advtantage of imbibiltion and high pressure gradients across the reservoir matrix blocks (unfractured Mocks of the reservoir rock which are visualized to be generally surrounded 'by the fracture system) evaluated in pilot tests by the Atlantic Richfield Co.5 and Humble Oil & Refining Co.' However, the early recovery and pressure performance of this flood indicalted that high pressure gradients induced between the fracture system and the centers of the matrix blocks were forcing water into the periphery of the blocks and temporarily interfering with the counter-current flow of oil due to imbibition. Fill-up in the blocks was occurring with re-solution of the free gas phase as pressures climbed above the original reservoir bubble point. It appeared that cessation of water injection to permit the capillary forces to become dominant and that expansion of the rock and its contained fluids during pressure reduction might aid in expulsion of oil from the rock matrix into the fractures. Subsequent production performance. aflter cessation of injection, proved this hypotheslis correct. Thus, pressure pulse waterflooding was born. Pressure pulse flooding appears to have several advan'tages over imbibition type flooding in highly fractured reservoirs. First, all wells may be used for water injection which should hasten fill-up and achieve a more rapid increase in reservoir pressure. Second, because of increased injection pressures and rates, flooding gradients will force water into the reservoir matrix more rapidly than would be achieved by imbibition alone. Third, during the pressure depletion cycle of the flood, the compressibility of the system, which has been increased by resolution of the free gas phase, provides energy for the displacement of oil at a rate greater than would correspond to countercurrent flow during imbibition. Fourth, during depletion all wells may be put on production, thus contributing to higher oil withdrawal rates on a reservoir-wide basis. One possible disadvantage of pressure pulse flooding as compared to imbibition floodling, however, is that the outer periphery of each matrix block is flooded to a residual or near residual oil saturation during the Water lnjection stage. This zone of reduced permeability to oil m'ay offer greater restriction to the production of

Jan 1, 1967

By Robert Glass Cleland

THE CLOSING years of the nineteenth century witnessed a rapid expansion in Phelps Dodge activities in Arizona and other parts of the Southwest and a corresponding decline in its exporting and importing interests in New York. Before the close of another decade, this process had gone so far that the company was committed lock, stock, and barrel to its western undertakings. By 1910 the evolution that began with the tentative investments at Bisbee and Morenci was complete. An enormous increase in the domestic production of iron and copper, which made it increasingly difficult to find markets for imported cargoes of those metals from English mills, accounted in part for this radical shift in Phelps Dodge activities and interests. In the case of tin plate, the change was even more spectacular. In 1890 a seventh of the world's supply of pig tin passed through the hands of Phelps Dodge agents. In 1906, thanks chiefly to the McKinley Tariff of 1890 which imposed a duty of over two cents a pound on tin plate imported into the United States, the company received its last shipment of tin from England, and thus ended a form of

Jan 1, 1952

By Frank H. Armstrong

All the mining machinery of the Penn Iron Mining Co. has been operated by electric power for several years and when another shovel for stockpile loading was required the advantages of an electric shovel were naturally considered. After considerable study, serious objections suggested themselves the use of a shovel operated directly by electrical apparatus by reason of the complicated control, severe service on the motors and the heavy surges of current required from the line. It was finally decided to construct an electro-hydraulic shovel using water under pressure to perform all the necessary operations except that of propelling, for which a separate motor was best suited. A car body with boom, dipper handle and dipper of late design, but without any of the steam machinery, was purchased. A motor-driven centrifugal pump, a pressure tank, an air tank, a small air compressor and water cylinders with plungers, pistons and valves, were installed in place of the steam equipment. Fig. 1 shows this shovel under construction and Fig. 2 shows it as it was operated during the first year, the summer of 1914. The large tank at the back of the car, in Fig. 1, carried air under

Jan 1, 1916

By Jacques Steininger, Robert E. England

Single crystals of ZnTe and ZnTe1-,Sex with x up to 0.13 have been grown from the elements by temperature gradient solution zoning using excess tellurium as a solvent. Best results have been obtained with charges with the compositions 45/55 at. pct Zn, Te, for ZnTe and increasing amounts of selenium for ZnTe1-xSex. The temperature in the molten zone was maintained at about 1070°C with a gradient of about 10°C per cm. Chemical analyses of quenched ZnTe ingots show tellurium concentrations in the molten zone as high as 70 pct with concentration differences across the zone of 1 to 2 at. pct Dark dots which are observed by transmitted light microscopy in as-grown crystals can be removed by annealing in zinc vapor at 900 C. INTEREST in wide band gap semiconductors has led to a new study of ZnTe and ZnTel-xSex crystal growth. ZnTe is the only II-VI compound with a wide band gap (2.3 ev) that can be made p type with low resistivity. Attempts to make it n type with low enough resistivity to be useful for p-n junctions have so far been unsuccessful.1 ZnSe has a band gap of 2.65 ev but can be made n type only. However, ZnTel-xSex solid solutions with x as low as 0.36 have been made both highly n and p type2 with a minimum band gap around 2.12 ev3 at room temperature and appear to hold the best promise for efficient injection electroluminescence in the visible. ZnTe has the lowest melting point of the zinc chal-cogenides (1295°C) and consequently attempts have been made to grow crystals from both the liquid and the vapor phase.4 Complicated apparatus is required for growth from stoichiometric melts because of the high vapor pressures of the elements at the melting point of ZnTe and because of the problem of quartz devitrification. Small crystals have thus been grown in high-pressure equipment by Fischer5 and by Narita et a1.6 with pressures of the order of 50 atm of argon to prevent excessive evaporation from the melt. Large crystals of ZnTe can be obtained by growth from the vapor phase4 but they often present numerous dislocations and inclusions. An improvement in the quality of vapor- grown ZnTe crystals was reported by Albers and Aten7 by equilibration of mixtures of small crystals with compositions lying on either side of the solid single-phase field at fixed temperature. The same technique was later applied by Aten8 to the growth of ZnTe1-xSex crystals with less than 1 pct inhomo-geneity. Because of the higher liquidus temperatures of the solid solutions and the high vapor pressure of selenium, previous attempts to grow ZnTel-xSex from the melt have been limited and unsuccessful.9 The phase diagram of the Zn- Te system is reproduced in Fig. 1, based on data from Kobayashi10 and Kulwicki.11 Carides and Fishher12 have reported lower liquidus temperatures on the tellurium-rich side, but their data would require confirmation. The liquidus temperature on the tellurium-rich side decreases rapidly with increasing tellurium concentration and the Te2 vapor pressure over the liquidus also decreases accordingly.'3 The decrease in liquidus temperature and vapor pressure therefore makes it possible to use conventional apparatus if there is a sufficient excess of tellurium in the melt. Single crystals of ZnTe have thus been grown by Kucza,14 in a modified Bridgman technique, from solutions containing up to 60 at. pct of Te by lowering unsupported quartz ampoules through a temperature gradient at about 1200°C. Under these conditions, the phase diagram indicates that the entire charge is initially molten. Crystal growth can therefore proceed by normal freezing and rejection of excess tellurium into the melt. The modified Bridgman technique has several major limitations. Because of the rejection of excess tellurium into the melt during freezing, the melt composition and the temperature at the growth interface vary continuously. They tend to follow the liquidus until the eutectic which is very close to pure tellurium (447°C, >99 pct Te). Since the solidus composition also varies with temperature,15 crystals grown by this method are inhomogeneous. They present small variations from stoichiometry which may affect their structure and physical properties. The simultaneous increase in tellurium content and decrease in melt temperature also combine to reduce the rate of diffusion of tellurium away from the growth interface, thereby causing constitutional supercooling and possibly dendritic growth. To minimize these effects, the initial melt composition is in practice kept relatively close to stoichiometry (less than 60 pct Te). This however limits the possibilities of operating at low temperatures and pressures. This paper describes a modified method of crystal growth by temperature gradient solution zoning (TGSZ) which is an adaptation of the temperature gradient zone-melting technique developed by pfann16 and of the traveling solvent method of Mlavsky and weinstein.I7 The TGSZ method now applied to the growth of ZnTe and ZnTel-xSex crystals is characterized by its very simple experimental arrangement and sample preparation technique. Unlike the modified Bridgman technique, there is no increase in the tellurium concentration in the melt and therefore it is possible to operate at lower temperatures and pressures. This method is also suitable for maintaining a constant temperature at the growth interface.

Jan 1, 1969

By Casper A. Nelson, Wendell M. Whitecotton

A WIDE variety of lead ore is treated by the Midvale Smelter, for it is a custom plant not only treating Company lead concentrate and direct-smelting ores but also custom ores and concentrates, principally from Utah, Idaho, and Nevada, with lesser amounts from Arizona, California, Colorado, Montana, Oregon, and Washington. The principal operating departments of the plant are weighing and sampling, Wedge roaster, D&L sintering, blast furnace and drossing, and baghouse. The lead bullion produced is shipped to a subsidiary, the U.S.S. Lead Refinery, Inc., at East Chicago, while the by-products, such as matte and speiss, are shipped to other smelters or re-treated at the plant.

Jan 1, 1948

By Philip B. Bucky

[CONTENTS t. How Does One Determine WhetherPAGE an ore Body Will Block-cave?R. W. Hughes13 Sherman R. Burdick 13 PAGER. T. Gallagher 14 Mark A. Smith 2 C. F. B. Price, Jr.14 Harry A. Leidich2Benjamin F. Tillson 14 McHenry Mosier2C. F. Jackson14,17 R. W. Hughes2R. Taborelli15 Sherman R. Burdick3Frank A. Ayer16 R. T. Gallagher 3Philip B. Bucky16 Benjamin F. Tillson 3Rollin Farminr6 Lucien Eaton 3J. L. G. Weysser15, 0,17 C. F. Jackson 3George S. Rice17 Philip B. Bucky32. How Does One Determine the Block4. What Determines the Procedure in Dimensions and the DevelopmentRemoving Caved Ore? Work Necessary to Make an OreHarry A. Leidich17 Body Cave?McHenry Mosier17,21 Mark A. Smith 5,7,() R. W. Hughes17 Harry A. Leidich6Sherman R. Burdick 18 McHenry Mosier6,7,12 R. T. Gallagher 18 R. W. Hughes6Mark A. Smith I8 Sherman R. Burdick 7Philip B. Bucky20, 21, 23 R. T. Gallagher 7C. F. B. Price, Jr20 Benjamin F. Tillson 7,11R. H. Bennett21 L. E. Young7C. F. Jackson 21, 23 Robert D. Hoffman8, 1 2Gerald Sherman 3 . 21 Gerald Sherman8Tell Ertl21 Philip B. Bucky10, 11, 12G. K. Foster 23 R. S. McClellan 12C. H. Shoemaker23 Tell Ertl 12 3. How Do the Forces Act and What Are5. What Are the Criteria for Determining the Stresses Developed in a Blockthe Efficiency of a Block-caving That Cause It to Block-cave?Operation? Mark A. Smith 12, ISHarry A. Leidich23 Harry A. Leidich13McHenry Mosier24 McHenry Mosier13R. W. Hughes24 Sherman R. Burdick 24 R. T. Gallagher 24]

Jan 1, 1942

By B. B. Betty

H. L. Burghoff.*—Have the authors any information on the effect of grain size in these materials? There is a material difference in the grain sizes shown for the Monel and the Inconel. Is a wide range of grain size normally found for each material, and, if so, what is its effect upon creep strength? 11. L. Eiselstein.—The grain size for Monel shown in the micrograph is the usual size found in that product. The grain size of Inconel is about the same as that, too. However, we have run tests on Inconel at higher temperatures than those reported in this paper, and have found that the coarser grain size has a better creep resistance; and that the grain size that gives the best creep resistance at 1600°F. is about 0.005 in. in diameter. We have no test on Monel with varying grain size. J. J. KANTER.†-It has been known for a long time that Monel metal exhibits ductility anomalies at elevated temperatures. Even in short-time test, it can be demonstrated in the range of 900°F. that there is a distinct falling off of the ability of Mone1 metal to elongate, and in rupture tests this shortcoming is still further accentuated. Knowledge of this rupture anomaly of Monel metal may be one of the reasons for which designer's approach certain high-temperature applications with reservations. The authors of this paper have merely demonstrated that for 900°F. the alloy has an ability to elongate 1.7 per cent over a period of some 2700 hr. Before any conviction can be expected from designers that Monel metal is applicable to stress design in such range of temperature, I think it is desirable to demonstrate the capacity for the material to elongate over a longer period of time than has been done in this presentation.

Jan 1, 1945

By Clemens Catesby Jones

The substance of this paper, now amended and altered in form for its present use, was the basis of a private report prepared under professional engagement.* A private report is necessarily objective, and deprived of the scope and technicality of a scieintific treatise—which accounts for the prevalence of drawings and succinct mathematical statements rather than full descriptive details in a paper reproduced from data, of which all the original working-notes have been destroyed. In a practical sense the Hudson river valley clay-deposits owe their present existence to the protection afforded by the rock-formations on which they are supported, and, instead of being uniform in depth or continuity, are subject to the irregularities of the rugged masses which preceded and are now concealed by them. The only available information concerning these deposits contained in previous public reports or maps furnished at best a mere photograph of the surface, and as now apparent this was misleading or unreliable. It was the object of this investigation to determine in a practical manner the location, form and extent of all the clay-deposits at present existing in the lower Hudson river valley, and to ascertain with a

Jan 1, 1900

By D. N. Seidrnan

In the present note we present thermal-analysis data for the liquidus curve from 0 to 76 at. pct Se and for the selenium-rich monotectic reaction in the Pb-Se system. We have previously reported that no expey-imental eviderzce was found for a lead-rich monotectic reaction, at -860°C with a monotectic composition of -20.5 at. pct Se, as found by Nozato and Igaki.&apos; Our additional data substantiated this earlier finding and extended the composition range studied. The alloys were prepared from semiconductor -grade lead and selenium purchased from the American Smelting and Refining Co. Both elements were 99.999+ wt pct pure as determined by the supplier. The impurities for lead were Fe (1 ppm) and Cu & ppm) while for selenium the impurities were Cu (< 1 ppm), As (< 1 ppm), Te (1 ppm), and C1 (<1 ppm). The general procedures used for thermal analysis were those specified by the National Bureau of Standards. A Pt/Pt-10 pct Rh thermocouple calibrated against the freezing points of zinc and copper purchased from the National Bureau of Standards and antimony (99.985 pct pure) purchased from A. D. Mackay, New York, was used for all the thermal analysis. The thermocouple electromotive force was measured with a Rubicon Type B potentiometer used in conjunction with a galvanometer with a sensitivity of 0.5 pV (mm) -&apos;. The absolute accuracy of this thermal-analysis system was *0.5"C. One-hundred-gram alloys of the desired composition were sealed in quartz crucibles, with a central thermocouple well, at a pressure of less than 10"1 Torr. The alloys were initially heated well above the liquidus curve and shaken vigorously to insure homogeneity. Cooling curves were then taken by the direct method at cooling rates ranging from -0.5" to 1.5"C (min)-&apos;. The phase diagram from 0 to 76 at. pct Se as determined by direct thermal analysis is shown in Fig. l.* An extrapolation of the selenium-rich portion of the liquidus curve to the monotectic reaction isotherm (678.3"C) gave a value of 76.1 at. pct Se for the monotectic composition. A tabulation of all the thermal-analysis data is given in Table I. As we previously reported no experimental evidence was found Fig. l—The partial Pb-Se phase diagram from 0 to 76 at. pct Se as determined by direct thermal analysis. For the sake of clarity the points for the 49.00 and 49.16 at. pct Se alloys were not drawn on this phase diagram, see Table I. for the lead-rich monotectic reaction found by Nozato and Igaki.&apos; This result was further substantiated by the fact that none of twelve lead-rich alloys, see Table I, examined for this monotectic reaction exhibited a thermal arrest in the temperature range (849" to 863°C) cited by Nozato and Igaki for the lead-rich monotectic reaction. Hence, our results tend to support the earlier qualitative work of ~elabon&apos; and Friedrich and ~eroux" in the 0 to 50 at. pct portion of the phase diagram, though the selenium-rich monotectic composition and reaction isotherm temperature were in agreement with the approximate values (75 at. pct Se and 672" to 680°C) given by Nozato and ~~aki. &apos;

Jan 1, 1967