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REFERENCES AND FOOTNOTES 1. U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Surface Mining. Surface Coal Mining Reclamation: 10 Years of Progress: 1977-1987. Washington, D.C. August 3, 1987.48 pp. (For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. 20402.) 2. The Rural Abandoned Mine Program (RAMP), authorized by Section 406 of SMCRA, provides for the control and prevention o f erosion and sediment damages from unreclaimed abandoned mine lands. 3. The Small Operator Assistance Program (SOAP), authorized by Section 401(b)(1) and 507(c) of SMCRA authorizes up to 10 percent of the fees collected for the Abandoned Mine Reclamation Fund to be used for technical assistance to help qualified small mine operators obtain techincal data needed for permit applications. Operators who produce fewer than 300,000 tons of coal per year are eligible for assistance. 4. OSM regulations 30 CFR 816.42 and 817.42 require water from areas distrubed by mining activities be in compliance with all applicable state and federal water-quality laws and effluent limitations for coal mining established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 5. Sourse: Abandoned Mine Lands Fee Collection System, Data from OSM-1 form. 6. Sourse: Abandoned Mine Lands Fee Collection System, Data from OSM-1 form. 7. Source: OSM Field Office Annual Reports. 8. Johnson, W. and G.C. Miller, Abandoned Coal-Mine Lands: nature, extent, and cost of reclamation. U. S. Bureau of Mines, 1979,29 pp. PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS Front cover, pp. i, 1, 2 bottom, 7 right, 10 bottom left, l 1 top, l l bottom right, 12 top, 13 bottom, 14 bottom right, 15,16 bottom, 17 top, 17 bottom right, 18 bottom, 19, 20 bottom, 21 top, 22, 23, 24 bottom, 25 bottom, 26 bottom left, 26 bottom right, 27, 28, 29 top, 30 bottom, 32 bottom right, 33 top, 34 top, 35 top left, 35 bottom left, 35 bottom right, 36 top, 37, top right, 37 bottom, 38 bottom, 39, 41, 42 top, 43 bottom, 44 bottom left, 44 bottom right, 45, 46, 47, and 53: Chuck Meyers, OSM. Page 2 top and center: Tony Fuhs. Page 3: John Sharkowicz, OSM. Page 6 left: North American Coal Corp. Pages 6 right, 7 left, l l bottom left, 13 top left, 13 top right, 17 bottom left, 21 bottom, 25 top left, 25 top right, 29 bottom, 30 center, 32 top, 32 bottom left, and 38 top: Bob Welch, OSM. Page 10 top left: Donald Stump, OSM. Pages 10 right, 14 top right, 14 center right, 18 top, and 44 top: Ron Hill, EPA. Page 12 bottom: Texas Utilities Co. Pages 16 top, 20 top, 24 top: Tennessee Valley Authority. Page 26 top right and 26 center left: Richard Dick, U.S. Bureau of Mines. Pages 30 top, 33 bottom left, 33 bottom right, 35 top right, 36 bottom, 37 top left, 40 top, 40 bottom, 42 bottom, 43 top left, and 43 top right: Jim Boyer, OSM. Page 31 top left, and 31 top right: Bruce Wage, Western Energy Co. Page 31 bottom: Rex Wilson, OSM. Page 34 bottom: West Virginia Division of Abandoned Mine Lands. Page 35 center: William Weist, Jr., OSM.

Jan 1, 1992

By Gregory M. Molinda

Large structural faults create serious ground control hazards, as well as adversely affect coal mineproduction. Two faults related to the Pine Mountain overthrust sheet in Buchanan County, VA, were investigated by the U.S. Bureau of Mines to determine their effect on ground control and to develop recognition criteria for prediction. Five underground mines encountering these faults were visited and mapped for structural information. This information, along with surface mapping, indicated that Pistol Gap and Keen Mountain Faults show right-lateral, strike-slip faulting and bedding planes slippage, which can be projected linearly and vertically. These fault zones are up to 200 ft wide, with coalbed offsets up to 18 ft vertically, coalbed swags (depressions) up to 15 ft, and roof falls up to 20 ft high. Recognition criteria include bedding plane slips, coalbed offsets, fault gouge, coalbed swag (depressions or synclines), and disturbed bedding. These recognition criteria will help an informed operator realize that many sudden coalbed discontinuities are related to larger geologic events (in this case thrust faulting) and can be projected linearly and vertically. Ground control strategies include mine designs that minimize fault exposure. Mining plans can be adjusted based on type and extent of fault movement.

Jan 1, 1989

By Walter T. Lewieki

"INTRODUCTION Numerous deposits of iron ore are found in Cherokee, Bartow, Floyd, and Polk Counties in northwest Georgia. The deposits are generally small and irregular in shape. The ore is usually referred to as ""brown ore"" and is predominately limonite. The crude or ""bank ore"" has to be washed and concentrated before being shipped.The proximity of the deposits to the Birmingham furnaces and a favorable freight differential permit the operation of many deposits that otherwise would be uneconomical. The district produced 413,468 long tons of brown-ore concentrates, averaging 45.53 percent iron in 1943.The necessity of developing additional iron-ore reserves for the war energeucy to supplement the production of the Birmingham district, prompted the Bureau of Mines to initiate exploration of the more promising northwest Georgia deposits. Thirteen properties in the four counties were explored during the program (fig. 1).HISTORY AND PRODUCTIONSeveral furnaces were operated in the district until the early 1900's, ranging from charcoal furnaces to more modern plants with capacities up to 50 tons of pig iron. No furnaces have operated for about 40 years, the product being shipped to Alabama and Tennessee.Bartow County iron mining is declining, although formerly it was the principal producer of the district. Most of the known merchantable ore deposits have been exhausted. For the past 3 years the Mitchell-Hodge mine has annually produced about 225,000 long tons of concentrates containing 46 to 43 percent iron and at present is the only large producer in Bartow County."

Jan 1, 1946

By S. L. Windes

This report presents physical and petrographic properties of approximately 60 types of rock from operating mines or mineral-investigation projects and supplements Repot of Investigations 4459, Physical Properties of Mine Rock (hereinafter referred to as Part I). The physical properties evaluated include the following: Apparent specific gravity Apparent porosity Compressive strength Flexural strength (modulus of rupture) Impact touchiness Abrasion hardness Scleroscope hardness Modulus of elasticity (Yourg?s modulus) Modulus of rigidity Specific damping capacity Longitudinal bar velocity

Jan 1, 1950

By Frank Chase, M. Terry Hoch, George Karabin, Joseph C. Zelanko, Christopher Mark

Pillar recovery continues to be a significant ground control hazard. During the past decade, 10 miners were killed during pillar extraction operations in southern West Virginia. Studies conducted during the past decade have identified a number of “risk factors” that can be used to evaluate pillar extraction plans: •Cut sequence •Final stump •Timber or Mobile Roof Supports •Roof bolting •Intersection span •Depth of cover •Roof quality •Age of workings For each of these factors, rock mechanics science suggests which alternative would be expected to be more risky. For example, numerical models were used to evaluate different cut sequences, and indicated that less roof convergence occurred with the outside lift method than with the Christmas tree in the particular environment simulated. For many of the risk factors, accident statistics confirm the science. One finding was that currently almost 70% of the retreat coal in southern WV is being mined with MRS. In contrast, timber supports were used in 70% of the past decade’s pillaring fatalities. This paper discusses each of the risk factors in turn, presents the relevant accident statistics, and shows how the risk factors can be combined to estimate the overall hazard. It also addresses the use of pillar design to minimize the risk of global stability hazards including squeezes, massive collapses, and bumps.

By Kenneth H. Johnston

This report describes in detail three waterflooding projects and a pressure-maintenance project in Butler and Cowley Counties, Kans., that will be visited on the 1963 annual spring tour of the Kansas-Oklahoma Waterflood Association. Among the unique features of the projects are the flooding of five oil-producing horizons separately with injection water furnished by two water-treating plants. Discussion of the individual projects includes information on their early history, the source and treatment of the injection fluids, oil production decline curves, and the results of water injection on oil production.

Jan 1, 1963

By E. V. Deshayes, W. E. Young

"INTRODUCTION The Camp Bird mine was investigated by Bureau of Mines engineers 3/ September 22 and 24, 1942, and April 29 and 30, 1944. In a subsequent report and supplement, it was recommended that core drilling be done below the 14th. level to determine if commercial ore existed at greater depths, and particularly if ore existed in the vein or adjacent thereto where it passes into the sedimentary formations estimated to underlie the volcanics approximately 400 feet below the 14th level.Seven diamond-drill holes aggregating 3,956 feet were drilled. Four of these holes were under the Hematite ore body and three were under the Big Discovery ore body. Two holes under, the Hematite ore body wore directed at angles but little steeper than the angle of dip of the vein and penetrated the sedimentaries beneath the volcanics close to the vein. Enough low-grade ore was found at the base of the Telluride conglomerate to indicate the presence of a large body of low-grade zinc sulfide ore. Two holes were directed to crosscut the vein at a depth of approximately 125 feet below the 14th level. No commercial ore was cut, but the vein showed the average width and same general characteristics as at the 14th level. One hole under the Big Discovery ore body was directed to crosscut the vein and test the base of the Telluride conglomerate in the footwall block. No commercial ore was found in either the vein or the sedimentary horizon. One hole was directed to test the base of the Telluride conglomerate in close proximity to the vein in the hanging-wall block. This hole was lost approximately 100 feet short of its objective, and a third hole was drilled to accomplish this same thing. The third hole was stopped approximately 50 feet short of its objective when failure of equipment caused a recess of the"

May 1, 1948

By James F. O?Neil

Brown iron ore deposits in Quitman County, Ga., were investigated by the Federal Bureau of Mines in cooperation with the State of Georgia, Department of Commerce, and the University of Alabama. Ninety-one holes were drilled, having an aggregate footage of 2,188 feet; seventy-one holes penetrated 248 feet of iron mineralization. Average thickness of the ore zone was 3.5 feet under an average thickness of 14.7 feet of overburden. The drilling developed inferred reserves containing nearly 30 million long tons of crude ore with an average analysis of 28 percent iron plus minor quantities of manganese. Test work done by the Bureau on the crude ore samples indicated that they would upgrade by current lug washer practice, with the use of a 1i8-inch screen, and yield 4.4 million dry long tons of concentrate with an average analysis of 52.1 percent iron plus manganese. The weight recovery obtained was 14.7 percent. Research studies made by the Bureau showed that the weight recovery would be increased by changing the screen size without any appreciable sacrifice of grade. The average weight recovery was increased to 18 percent with a 10-mesh screen and 22.8 percent with a 20-mesh screen. Screen tests studies indicated that there was no appreciable interlocking of the iron and manganese minerals and the clay and silica waste particles of the materials retained on a 200-mesh screen. Clay was prominent in micron-size slimes. Silica was deleterious in the minus 20-mesh size.

Jan 1, 1965

By K. K. Kelley

This work is a continuation of a program of study of the measurement and correlation of fundamental thermodynamic data inaugurated several years ago by the United States Bureau of Mines. Previous bulletins in this series were concerned with (1) The Entropies of Inorganic Substances (66),3 (2) High-Temperature Specific-Heat Equations for Inorganic Substances (67), (3) The Free Energies of Vaporization and Vapor Pressures of Inorganic Substances (68), (4) Metal Carbonates-Correlations and Applications of Thermodynamic Properties (71), (5) Heats of Fusion of Inorganic Substances (69), and (6) A Revision of the Entropies of Inorganic Substances-1935 (70). The present bulletin has as its primary purpose the correlation of the thermodynamic properties of elementary sulphur and its inorganic compounds and the presentation, after careful consideration of all available information, of a self-consistent system of thermodynamic relationships for these substances. It is believed that such a set of relationships, concerning substances of such great metallurgical importance as sulphur, sulphur oxides, hydrogen sulphide, metal sulphides, and metal sulphates, is of considerable value in indicating directions of possibly profitable experimental work and in clarifying subjects of technical interest upon which direct experimental information is difficult and expensive to obtain. It cannot be doubted that many problems of technical importance that at the outset appear almost hopelessly complex or obscure either may be solved, if enough information is available, or the specific lacking information clearly indicated by the adoption of the thermodynamic viewpoint. This has been demonstrated many times in the work of the Metallurgical Division, Pacific Experiment Station, Berkeley, Calif. Even when only crude basic information is available, a semiquantitative picture often may be developed by thermodynamic means in which general trends and approximate limits of a proposed process or modification of practice may be clearly portrayed and thus used as guides in further considerations and experimentation.

Jan 1, 1937

[This is the sixth in a series of reports on properties of commercial motor fuels, made in accordance with a cooperative Agreement between the Cooperative Fuel Research (C.F.R.) Committee and the Bureau of tines of the Department of the Interior. The first report gave data on motor gasolines sold during the winter of 1935.-36.3/ The present report cover brands of gasoline represented by 1,490 samples plus thus: from the Pacific Coat, which ;sere averaged by the Pacific Coast Technical Group before being submitted and are published exactly as they were submitted. In some areas reports were received from 8 to 10 companies on the same brands of gasoline, Whereas in other areas only one Company reported on a brand. Thus, it can be seen that soma of the data are more representative than others. The inclusion of data from several cities within some of the districts has improved the report by reducing the number of brands reported by only one company. Severe changes have been made in the districts. A new district, Memphis, Tenn., has been formed to include Arkansas any western Tennessee. The Rocky Mountain area, have been divided into three sections. Salt Lake City and Denver form the Middle Rocky Mountain district; Laramie, Wyo., Idaho, Montana, and. Spokane, Wash., are included in the North Rocky Mountain district, and Arizona, New Mexico , and El Paso, Tex., have been combined to represent the South Rock Mountain district. The Cleveland district has been expanded to include Ohio ant. Indiana. Eastern Pennsylvania, Maryland, and northern Virginia are included in the Washington (D. C.) district. The Atlanta district includes Georgia, South Carolina; Mississippee, and northern Florida.]

Jan 1, 1938

By L. R. Stark

Two wetland simulation experiments were carried out in order to determine the effects on manganese retention of several wetland design parameters, including flow rate, inlet pH, carbon supplementation, substrate type, and surface free water depth. The primary aim in each experiment was to determine if sustained manganese retention could be accomplished under the specific experimental treatments. If successful, these experiments could recommend design parameters for the construction of field wetland systems for manganese treatment. Crushed limestone clearly was superior to spent mushroom compost with respect to manganese retention. The presence of free surface water detracted from manganese treatment, while lower flow rates enhanced manganese treatment. Sustained manganese retention was achieved using crushed limestone as the substrate coupled with an absence of surface free water, under inlet water conditions of pH 7.0 and no appreciable iron. Sustained manganese retention was not achieved under reducing conditions using spent mushroom compost while varying flow rate, inlet pH, and carbon supplementation regimes. However, lowering the flow rate resulted in many significant beneficial effects on outlet water chemistry: lower outlet manganese concentrations (over the short term), higher outlet pH, lower outlet acidity, higher outlet alkalinity, higher outlet sulfide, lower outlet sulfate, and lower outlet redox potential. Supplementation of the wetlands with dairy whey resulted in lower outlet manganese concentrations (over the short term), marginally higher outlet sulfide levels, and acted to lower the redox potential under the high flow regime. Wetlands receiving a neutral pH had lower outlet acidity, higher outlet alkalinity, lower outlet sulfate, but equivalent outlet manganese concentrations than wetlands receiving an acidic pH. When manganese is the primary mine water contaminant and a passive water treatment system is to be used, it is recommended that crushed limestone with negligible surface water be used in place of composted materials. This recommendation assumes a source water with circumneutral pH and an absence of other metals.

Jan 1, 1993

By Oliver Bowles

This paper is the third of a series of reports on asbestos prepared by the Bureau of Mines. The reports already issued contain general information, including descriptions of deposits throughout the world.3/ The present paper deals chiefly with milling and marketing. Many grades of asbestos are marketed, and an important phase of milling is the grading of fiber; these subjects therefore are related so intimately that contiguity in their treatment is fully justified. Although the Bureau of Mines is interested primarily in the mining and preparation of raw materials, the fabrication of asbestos products has attained such importance in the United States that brief reference to processes of manufacture is included. CLASSIFICATION OF FIBER Canadian asbestos fibers are divided into three main groups - crudes, mill fibers, and shorts. The term "crude" is applied to fiber of spinning grade measuring three eighths inch or longer, that is. hand-cobbed and not passed through a mill. Mill fibers are obtained by crushing and beating the fiber-bearing" rock, until the, asbestos is freed and, then removing the fiber from the rock by screening or air separation. Shorts are the lowest grades of mill products.

Jan 1, 1935

By G. J. Colaizzi

The Bureau of Mines, at the request of local authorities in Rock Springs, Wyo., investigated and conducted through contracts a multistage program of exploratory drilling and pumped-slurry backfilling of 15 areas of potential subsidence in abandoned mine workings underneath that community. Initially, the Bureau in 1969 had recommended a program of gravity blind flushing of some of the inaccessible mine voids, and in 1970 a new technique, the pumped-slurry injection process, was tested for the first time in a site adjacent to the city's area of severe surface subsidence. Success of this initial testing program, and of a large-scale project in Scranton, Pa., led to further large- scale projects, funded by Congress, that resulted in the successful back- filling not only of all 15 target areas of potential subsidence in Rock Springs, but also of several areas in other States. Total cost of the projects in Rock Springs, including the original pumped-slurry test, was $3,243,993. A total of about 923,000 tons of sand was injected hydraulically into mine voids, rendering 178 acres of residential and central-downtown areas of Rock Springs less susceptible to subsidence damage. The pumped-slurry method was proved to be much superior to the gravity blind flushing method in term of the amount of solids that could be injected underground through a single borehole. However, there are special conditions that make this technique more or less applicable in different areas or underground configurations, as noted in the report's conclusions.

Jan 1, 1980

By R. S. Dean

The brief resume of the activities of the Metallurgical Division that appears annually in its progress reports series serves a useful purpose by making available a rather comprehensive but concise recapitulation of the current work, and publications of the division. An unprecedented opportunity to attack the problem of producing ferro-grade material from low-grade domestic manganese ores effectively was provided by the act designated as Public 667 of the 76th Congress of the United States, approved June 26, 1940, which made available an appropriation for "Expediting Production of Equipment and. Supplies for National Defense." Although the funds were not immediately available to the division, good progress has been made in the, solution of the many and diverse problems presented in the studies undertaken to determine the best methods for the recovery of useful products from a wide variety of manganese ores.

Jan 1, 1941

By J. E. Chilton

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has conducted research to determine the influence of mining machine-mounted scrubbers on airflows and methane concentrations at the face when blowing ventilation systems are used. Tests were conducted in a full-scale ventilation gallery with a model mining machine that simulated airflow created by a dust scrubber. During the tests, ultrasonic anemometers were used to measure airflow speed and direction at several locations near the face. For the same test conditions, methane was released from the face and gas concentrations were measured at 21 locations above the machine using fixed point methanometers. Changes in airflow speed and direction are correlated with scrubber airflow and the measured methane distribution above the mining machine. The research results showed that operation of machine-mounted scrubbers improved face ventilation when blowing ventilation is used by increasing both the intake flow and the quantity of air reaching the face.

By John C. Machisak

DATA ON INJURY experience at quarries and related plants of the United States are presented in this publication under the following general sections: A) General injury experience: Tables 1-4: Contain current data on number of injuries, injury-frequency rates, work location, accident agency, degree of injury, and related employment data. (B) Injury experience at different kinds of quarries: Tables 5-6: Current data on number of injuries, injury-frequency rates, work location, accident agency, degree of injury, and related employment data. (C) Injury experience by States: Tables 7-19: Current data on the number of injuries, injury-frequency rates, accident agency, degree of injury, and related employment data. (D) Selected injury data: Tables 20-30: Current data on various selected factors of operating conditions at different kinds of quarries, including employment size-groups, length of shifts, comparative severity of injuries, and injury data and related employment experience at dimension-stone and crushed and broken stone quarries, and underground quarries. (E) Mining methods and historical injury experience: Tables 31-32; Employment data and injury experience in the quarrying industries of the United States, by mining method and work location, 1953-58; and historical injury experience and employment data in the quarrying industry, 1911-58.

Jan 1, 1962

By Lincoln A. Stewart, P. S. Haury

"INTRODUCTION AND RESUME Arizona asbestos mines are the only sources on the American continents of iron-free chrysotile spinning fiber that meets the Navy specifications for asbestos fiber for use in covering electrical cables. Rhodesia normally supplies the bulk of this grade of asbestos at about half the Price of Ari zona spinning fiber. The acute submarine menace in 1942 focused attention on the danger that imports might be cut off and that a sudden demand for greatly expanded production might fall on the Arizona mines to supply the tonnage of this essential material needed for war production.A joint preliminary investigation of Arizona asbestos deposits was made in August 1941 by J. R. Thoenen, senior mining engineer of the Bureau of Mines and A. E. Granger, a geologist of the United States Geological Survey. A more extended investigation of the numerous asbestos mines and prospects, which are scattered over 25 townships of difficult terrain in Gila County, was begun by the senior author in August 1942.The Geological Survey assigned two geologists (Newton Chute and A. F. Shride) a few weeks later to study the geology as an aid in selecting the mines for the Bureau's exploration projects. Six mines were selected for exploratory work because it was desired to prove reserves of ore where production could be started quickly if urgent demand should arise. Acceleration of production is normally slow because of adverse operating conditions. First, the mines are at distances of 35 to 100 miles from Globe, the shipping and supply point, and the roads are few and poor. The mine openings start in steep canyon walls, so that mining supplies usually have to be packed in and the product packed out over 0.5 to 5 miles of burro trail. Second, most of the ore deposits are small, and the ratio of rock broken to spinning fiber recovered is very high, usually exceeding 200."

Aug 1, 1947

By W. R. Hardwick

This Information Circular describes the development of block-caving methods and practices by the Miami Copper Co. at the Miami mine in Gila County, Arizona. It is one of a series published by the Bureau of Mines on mining methods, practices, and costs in various mining districts of the United States. This report gives a history of the district and outlines early prospecting and exploration including methods of sampling and estimation of ore tonnage and value at the Miami mine. Early mining methods are described, particularly those that influenced developments in the caving method. Mine exploration, development, and operating methods for block caving are described with particular attention to those factors, physical, economic, engineering, and managerial that have improved efficiency in the mining operations over a long productive period. Extraction, ventilation, wage system, safety, water supply, power plant, and shop facilities are discussed. The last section gives a brief sumary of such costs as are available for publication.

Dec 1, 1964

By John D. Spencer

Research on the development of new and improved methods for the discovery and production of oil and gas and production of fluid fuels from coal continued to be the major thrust of the Bureau of Mines energy research program during 1973. Crude oil recovery from tar sands and oil shale also retained a high priority in this work. Complementing this program were numerous studies aimed at accomplishing the objective of increased energy output with greater safety and minimum harm to the natural environment. This report summarizes research objectives and results and itemizes formal publications of the Bureau of Mines on energy and related subjects.

Jan 1, 1974

By Zsuzsanna Zborovszky

[Certain chapters of the tentative document entitled, "Test Requirements for instruments & Apparatus to be Considered for MESA Intrinsically Safe Certification" are evaluated and supporting data are presented on certain key issues with the purpose of helping the regulatory agency in improving the above document. The subjects discussed in detail are: hot wire ignition with W and BeCu wires; the most sensitive methane-air :and propane air ratio; the ignition limits for inductive-resistive circuits in 8.3°; methane-air mixtures in the 24-OV, 100 mH-2 [ ]H range, the resistive ignition limit as a special case when L ? 0; the capacitive-resistive ignition limit representing a four ,dimensional problem is analyzed and discussed in general and the variation of the ignition limit using Vo and/or r2 as a parameter are determined experimentally. The ignition limit is also determined for the [r1 ,~ r2] = 0 case ("capacitor alone") and for the most dangerous capacitive resistive circuit combination. The ignition limits are below the limits proposed in the document. A survey of the different factors influencing the ignition is made as to their suitability to provide a constant safety factor. It is shown that a constant safety factor cannot be achieved. The best method for applying a safety factor appears to be the increase of initial pressure or use of other gas mixture. The revision of the safety factor concept and ignition limit curves is recommended.]

Jan 1, 1980