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By Walter J. Mead

By American tradition, if not by rational decision, publicly owned natural resources have been transferred to private industry for processing. The process of transfer requires specific determination of the price which the patentee, buyer, or lessee must pay to the government in exchange for the right to develop a resource, and selection of the patentee, buyer, or lessee from among several possible contestants. Pricing of natural resources owned by the government presents a set of problems quite different from ordinary commodity pricing. Natural resources in situ are not homogeneous commodities. Within any class of natural resources, specific leasable parcels will differ in value by reason of location and accessibility, as well as quality and quantity. Thus, there is no "going price;" every lease within a specific resource class will have a different value. To complicate further the pricing and buyer selection problems, competition may not be reliable. Natural-resource markets are characterized by oligopsony conditions. In a significant number of cases, as will be shown later, there has been only one bidder for a given lease, and in most lease sales the number of bidders is equal to or less than three. As a further complication, there is great uncertainty regarding the value of specific resources, even among the best-informed buyers, as well as within the leasing agency. In some instances, particularly with regard to oil and gas resources, there may be uncertainty about the presence of resources, as well as the quantity and quality of any resources contained in the tract offered for lease. In other cases, such as oil shale and some deep ocean minerals where new technologies are involved, the presence of the resource is clearly established. There may be a relatively high degree of knowledge about the quantity and quality of the resource, but there is great uncertainty concerning the cost of production. These problems in total make it difficult for the leasing agency to appraise accurately the resource to be leased, as well as for the potential bidder to calculate a bid price that will yield him a normal profit. The pricing goal of the federal government as the seller or lessee may be to capture the economic rent; that is, the price of a resource might equal its discounted present value. A required price substantially above this amount would either generate no bids, or, in the long run, would bankrupt the buyer. A price below this amount is a disguised subsidy to the lessee. A subsidy to mineral lessees, as to any other economic interest group, as a minimum should be justified by a clear showing of net external benefits from the economic activity. In the case of timber sales by the U.S. Forest Service, the Forest Service Handbook asserts that "the aim in national forest stumpage appraisal is to determine market value,"8 and "market value" is equated to "fair market value." Regarding minerals, there is no reference in legislation or regula-

Jan 1, 1976

Trans. No. Place Date Vol. Page 1. Wilkes-Barre Pa......May.71 1 3 2. Bethlehem, Pa.........Aug., '71 I 10 3. Troy, N.Y............Nov..: 71 1 13 4. Philadelphia, Pa........Feb., 72.. 1 17 5. New York. N. Y.*......May, '72.. 1 20 6. Pittsburgh. Pa.........Oct..' 72.. 1 25 7. Boston, Mesa..........Feb., '73.. 1 28 8. Philadelhia, Pa.*......May, '73.. 2 3 9. Easton, is............Oct..' 73.. 2 7 10. New York, N. Y.......Feb..' 74 . . 2 11 11. St. Louie. Mo.*........May,' 74 . . 3 3 12. Hazleton, Pa...........Oct., '74.. 3 8 13. New Haven Conn......Feb., '75.. 3 15 14. Dover,N.J.*..........May, 75.. 4 3 15. Cleveland,O...........Oct. 75. 4 0 16. Washington D. C......Feb.'' 76.: 4 18 17. philadelphia, Pa.......June,: 76.. 5 3 18. Philadelphia Pa........Oct 76.. 5 19 19. New York, N. Y.......Feb: '77.. 5 27 20. Wilkes-Barre. Pa.*.....Mag :77.. 0 3 21. Amenia N. Y..........Oct. 77.. 6 10 22. Philadeiphia Pa........Feb.;' 78. . 6 18 23. Chattanooga' Term.*. . . May' 78. . 7 3 24. Lake George: N. Y....: Oct. 78. . 7 103 25. Baltimore, Md.*.......Feb:' 79.. 7 217 26. ~ittsburgi, Pa.........~a;' 79.. 6 3 27. Montreal, Canada......~ept.;' 79.. 8 121 28. New York, N. Y.*......Feb., '80.. 8 275 29. Lake Superior, Mich....Aug., '80. . 9 1 30. Philadelphia, Pa.*......Feb., '81. 9 275 31. Staunton, Va..........May, '81. .10 1 32. Harrisburg, Pa.........Oct.. '81..10 119 33. Washington, I). C.*....Feb., '82. . 10 226 34. Denver. Colo..........Aug.. '82. . ll 1 35. Boston. Mass.*.........Feb.. '83..11 217 38. Roanoke, Va...........June, '83.. 12 3 37. Troy, N. Y...........Oct.. '83. .12 175 38. Cincinnati. O.*.... Feb, '84..12 4 39. Chicago Ill............May, '84. . 13 1 40. philadelphia, Pa........Sept., '84. . 13 285 41. New York, N. Y.*......Feb., '85. . 13 586 42. Chattanooga, Tenn.....May, '85..14 1 43. Halifax, N. S..........Sept., '85.. 14 307 44. Pittsburgh, Pa.*........Feb.. '86 . . 14 587 45. Bethlehem. Pa.........May, '86 .. 15 Ixiii. 46. St. Louis, Mo..........Oct, 86.. 15 Ixx. 47. Scranton, Pa.*.........Feb.', '87. . 15 lxxvi 48. Utah and Montana.....July '87.. 16 xvii. 49. Duluth, Minn...........July' '87. -16 xxiv. 50. Boston. Mass.*.........Feb.: '88. . 16 xxviii. 51. Birmingham, Ala.......May, '88. .17 xix. 52. Buffalo N. Y..........Oct. '88.. 17 xxiv. 53. New york, N.Y........feb.' ;89 . . 17 xxxi. 54. Colorado..............June' 89 . . 18 xvii. 55. Ottawa, Canada........Oct., 89. . 18 xxiv. 56. Washington, I). C.*. . . Feb. 90. .18 xxx. 57. New York, N. Y........sept:, '93. .19 vii. 58. New York, N. Y.*......Feb. '91. . 19 xxv. 59. Cleveland, O.......... June, :91 . .a xvi. 60. Glen Summit, Pa.......Oct, 111. . 20 lxi. 61. Baltimore, Md.*.......Feb.: '92. .21 xix. 62. Plattsburg, N. Y.......June, '02. . 21 xxxiii. 03. Reading. Pa...........Oct., :92. .21 xliv. 64. Montreal. Canada*.....Feb. 93..21 65. Chicago, Ill............aug.: '93..22 XI. 66. Virginia Reach. Va.*. ...Feb., '04. .24 xwl. 67. Bridgeport Coon.......Oct., '94..24 xxx?. 08. Florida ...'............Mar., '95. .25 xix 69 Atlanta. Ga......... Oct 95. 25 xi 70. Pittsburgh. Pa.*........Feb., '96.. 26 xvii. Trans. No. Place Date Vol. Page 71. Colorado..............Sept. '96. .26 xxix. 72. Chicago, Ill............Feb.. "97.. 27 xvii. 73. Lake Superior..........July '97. .27 xxx. 74. Atlantic City, N. J.*. ..Feb.: :98. .28 xvii. 75. Buffalo N. Y..........Oct. 08. .28 XXXVI. 76. New York,N. Y.*......Feb.: '99. .29 xvii. 77. California.............Sept., ;99. . 29 xlix. 78. Washington, D. C.*.....Feb., 00. .30 xix. 79. Canada...............Aug.. '00. .30 xlv. 80. Richmond. Va.*........Feb.. '01. . 31 xix. 81. Mexico................Nov..'01.. 32 cxviii. 82. Philadelphia Pa. $......May, :02. . 33 xxxv. 83. New Haven, Conn......Oct.. 02.. 33 xlvii. 84. Albany N. Y.*........Feb '03. .34 xxiii. 85. New York, N. Y........Oct.': '03. .34 xi. 86. Atlantic City. N. J.*....Feb., '04. .35 XXIII. 87. Lake Superior..........Sept.'04. .35 dii. 88. Washington. D. C......May' '05. .36 xlii. 89. British Columbia.......July, '05. . 36 90. Bethlehem. Pa.........Feb. '06. .37 xli. 91. London, England.......July: '06. .37 xlviii. 92. New York, N. Y........April, '07. . 38 lii. 93. Toronto, Canada.......July. '07. .38 lix. 94. New York, N. Y........Feb., :08. .39 xli. 95. Chattanooga, Tenn.....Oct.. 08..39 xlviii. 06. New Haven Conn......Feb. '09. .40 xli. 97. Spokane,Wash.........Sept:.'09. .40 xlviii. 98. Pittsburgh, Pa.........Mar.,'10. .41 xxxviii. 99. Canal Zone............Nov.,'10. .41 dv. 100. Wilkes-Barre, Pa.......June. ' 11. . 42 xxxiv. 101. San Francisco, Cal......Oct.. '11..42 xliv. 102. New York. N. Y.*......Feb 12. .43 Ixxvii. 103. Cleveland, Ohio........0ct;' '12.. 44 wii. 104. New York, N. Y.*......Feb.. '13. .45 xv. 105. Butte, Mont...........Aug., '13. .46 ?' 108. New York, N. Y........Oct., 13..47 vii 107. New York. N. Y.*......Feb.. '14..48 xv. 108 Salt Lake City. Otah Aug. :l. 49 5: 109. Pittsburgh, Pa.........Oct., 14. .50 vii. 110. New York, N. Y.*......Feb., '15. .51 xvi. 111. San Francisco, Cal......Sept., '15. .52 xii. 112. New York,N. Y.*......Feb., '16..54 xvi. 1 Arizona...............Sept.,'l6. .55 VII 114. New York, N. Y.*......Feb., '17: .56 vii. 115. St. Louis, Mo..........Oct.. '17..57 vii. 116. NewYork,N. Y.*......Feb.. '18..59 xvii 117. Colorado.....:........Sept.,'18. .60 vii. 118. Milwaukee, Wis........Oct.. '18. .60 x:!: 119. NewYork,N. Y.*......Feb., '19..61 xi. 120. Chicago...............Sept.,' l9.. 62 VII. 121. New York, N. T.*......Feb., '20..63 ix. 122. Lake Superior District. .Aug., '20.. 66 ix. 123. New York, N. Y.*......Feb., '21. .66 xiii. 124. Wilkes-Barre, Pa...... Sept.. : 21.. 66 xix. 125. New York, N. Y.*......Feb., 22. .67 ix. 126. San Francisco. Cal......Sept.,:22. .68 xxix. 127. New York, N.Y.*.....Feb., 23. .69 xxix 128. Canada...............Aug., '23. .69 xxxv! 128.129. New York, N. Y.*......Feb., ;24. .70 xxxi. 130. Birmingham, Ala.......Oct. 24. .71 xxxiii 131. NewYork.N Y.*......Feb.: '25.. 71 xxxviii. 132. 131.Salt Lake City, Utah .. .Sept., '25. .73 xvi 133. New York, N. Y.*......Feb., '26. .73 xxii. 134. Pittsburgh Pa ....... Oct.. '26. .74 xv. 135. New York,' N. Y.*............Feb., '27. .75 x::: 135.136. NewYork,N. Y.*......Feb., '28..76 104 137 NewYork.N. Y.*......Feb., '29. .291 116 138.San FranciscoYork,N.Y. Cal..........Oct. 29..308 406 139. New York, N. Y.*...Feb., '30..30H 1321

Jan 1, 1930

By Paul E. Melancon, Vincent C. Kelley, Dale F. Kittel

Uranium of the Grants region occurs predominantly in continental sandstones of the upper part of the Jurassic Morrison Formation, but significant lesser deposits are found in limestone of the Jurassic Todilto Formation and in black shale of the Cretaceous Dakota Formation. The deposits are disseminations that form runs ranging from a few hundred tons to several million tons. The ore consists mainly of uraninite, uraniferous carbonaceous material, coffinite, and such secondary oxidized minerals at tyuyamunite, carnotite, and uranophane. In sandstone, the ore runs were locallized by mudstone, interstitial carbonaceous material, and primary sand channel trends. In limestone, ore deposition was related to folds and fracture zones. The great bulk of production has come from the Ambrosia Lake mines in the Grants district and the Jackpile and Paguate mines in the Laguna district. The ores, which generally have been 0.20 to 0.30 per cent U3O8, are treated at mills operated by Kerr-McGee Corporation, Homestake-Sapin Partners, and The Anaconda Company, all in the Grants district. In 14·years after discovery in 1950, the deposits had yielded concentrates valued in excess of $800,000,000. Since deposition of the Jurassic host rocks, a geologic history involving tilting, faulting, erosion, changing ground-water environments, and oxidation has considerably influenced the existence and character of the deposits. It is evident that their ongm is not simple. However, a degree of agreement appears probable for a pre-Dakota age for the original ore runs, and, at Ambrosia Lake, two principal stages of ore formation, separated by Laramide faulting, are recognized. All earlier ores have been modified by Quaternary oxidation, solution, and enrichment during which time much secondary tyuyamunite, metatyuyamunite, carnotite were formed.

Jan 1, 1968

By R. C. Canby

JUDGE GRANT, in a delightful satire of his, says: "Boston is a state of mind." I think that this same statement might well be made of the metallurgy of lead. I was particularly impressed with this when about thirteen or fourteen years ago I prepared a paper on "Development of the American Water- jacket Lead Blast Furnace." Dividing the time, as I did into ten-year periods, from the commencement of lead smelting at Eureka, Nev. (1870), and showing the tendency for each of the five decades it was evident that the progress had been through a succession of states of mind from the rule of thumb through the ultra scientific, or from what I might call the slag type period up to the present highly developed art. Conservatism has been characteristic of the metallurgist. This may have been most natural, especially with the lead metallurgist, the development of whose art was so entirely in the custom smelting plant, where the metal contents of his ores were paid for in cash and therefore excessive metallurgical losses could mean nothing short of financial bankruptcy. The metallurgist himself was held to a personal account, in these smelting plants. It was the metallurgist who was accountable. In the concentrating plants, if undue losses occurred remodelling of the plant was discussed, but if there were excessive metallurgical losses in the custom smelting plant, a new metallurgist was considered as the remedy. For this reason the tendency was to adhere to recognized practice and to be wary of unusual methods, using the word unusual in the sense in which it is used in Article VIII of the Constitution of the United States, as to punishments and modes of death. This conservatism of the metallurgist was reflected as other branches of metallurgy were developed. We have heard of the wonderful development of flotation, but it had to be introduced over the dead metallurgical bodies of its opponents.

Jan 1, 1926

By David Turnbull

In most reactions involving solids the transformation kinetics may be represented by the combination of two processes —those of nucleation and of growth. For example, Mehl and his coiq-orker in their studies on the transformation of austenite to pearlite in steels have been able to describe the kinetics in terms of the rates of nucleation and of growth. By micrographic examination of their specimens they determined the nucleation rate (rate of appearance of pearlite colonies) as a function of time, of percent transformation, and of temperature. They observed that after an incubation period in which no nuclei are observed, the number of nuclei appearing per unit time per unit of untransformed grain boundary area, increases at an increasng rate with time. When recrystallization rates have been interpreted in terms of rates of nucleation and growth and the rate of nucleation determined, an incubation period followed by an increasing rate of nucleation has also been reported. Among the studies in which this phenomenon has been observed are those of Kornfeld and coworkers3 on cold-drawn aluminum wire, of Anderson and Mehl4 n the recrystallization of aluminum sheet, and of Stanlcy and Meh15 on the recrystallization of silicon ferrite sheet. The existence of an incubation period during which no nuclei are observed does not appear to have been reconciled with the generally accepted Volmer-Becker theory of nucleation in condensed systems. This theory ostensibly requires the rate of appearance of nuclei to be independent of time. Volmer-Becker Theory In order to form a stable nuclcus of a new phase B in a mother phase A, the molecules or atoms of the mother phase must surmount a free energy barrier whose height is determined by the volume free energy change accompanying the transformation and the energy of the surface separating the two phases. The free energy difference between nuclei of various sizes and the molecules or atoms of the mother phase is plotted schematically in Fig I as a function of the radius of the nucleus r. This free energy difference is plotted for two values of the change of free energy per atom, (Jb — ja) accompanying the transformation when the volumes of the two phases are infinite. One of these values of (Jb—Ja) corresponds to a temperature above the temperature To at which the phascs A and B are in equilibrium, and the other to a temperature below To. In order for a nucleus of phase B to be stable at a temperature T² < TO, its radius must be equal to or greater than the critical value r* for which the free energy of formatioil of the nucleus is a maximum, the of phase B having radii equal to or less than r* will be called embryos hfehl and Jetter," in discussing the kinetics of nucleation in solid systems, suppose that embryos of critical size are formed

Jan 1, 1949

By John Wellington Finch

INVESTIGATIONS by the Bureau of Mines of deposits containing strategic minerals were authorized by what has become known as the Strategic Materials Act (Public No. 117, 76th Congress, Chapter 190. 1st Session). A later act providing an appropriation for the first of four years through which the investigations are to be conducted was signed on Aug. 9, 1939. No time has since been lost as seven field projects already are being vigorously prosecuted, and two others no doubt soon will be in course of execution. Project engineers were at their stations within two days after funds had been made available. Crews have been hired; equipment and supplies have been purchased; 5 bids for diamond drilling have been obtained and the drilling has started base camps have been established: ground has been cleared; and several thousand feet of trenching, test-pitting, and sampling have already been done. At the Reno Experiment Station of the Bureau, a special metallurgical laboratory has been provided to make assays, analyses, and tests upon samples of ores from all projects under investigation.

Jan 1, 1939

By H. J. Rose

Sixty-five million net tons of coal were carbonized in the by-product and beehive coke ovens1 of the United States during 1924. This tonnage represented 13.4 per cent. of the bituminous coal which was mined in that year. Table 1 shows production and disposition.2 Table 1.—Production and Disposition of Ocen Coke in 1924 By-product Beehive Total Coal charged into ovens, tons................ 49,061,339 15,914,310 64,975,649 Coke produced (exclusive of screenings and breeze), tons............................. 33,983,568 10,286,037 44,269,605 Average yield of coke, per cent ............. 69.3 6.46 68.9 Disposition of coke, per cent.: Blast furnace.......................... . . 82.6 Foundry............................... . 13.3 6.6 Domestic.............................. . 1.4 6.7 Water gas manufacture and all other uses.. 4.6 . 4.1 Cokes having somewhat different combinations of chemical and physical properties are desired for the various uses listed above, and these properties depend primarily upon the types of coal used. American coals have a wide range of purity and coking quality, and the chief subject of this paper will be the selection of coals for the manufacture of blast furnace, foundry, domestic, and water-gas coke, in by-product coke ovens. It will obviously be necessary to include a discussion of those physical and chemical characteristics that are generally considered essential or desirable for each type of coke. Suitable Coals The examination and development of new sources of coking coal are important because of the irregular and limited distribution of high-grade

Jan 1, 1927

By W. R. Crane

DRAINAGE in these mines has been discussed in papers, on mining practice,1 but the fact that water, varying from 0.16 to 3.46 and averaging 1.43 times the amount of ore mined, has to be pumped from the mines daily, indicates the importance of the problem and the advisability of making a thorough investigation of the source of mine water, its mode of entry into the mines, its effect upon mining conditions; and consideration of means of improving the conditions. While conditions are not serious, yet there is danger that they may become worse if present mining practice is continued, owing to the presence of formations, known to carry large quantities of water, that overlie the ore bed worked. Much detailed information has been collected regarding: rainfall, and run-off in streams draining the district; the effect of different kinds of formations, porous and non-porous; the inclination of the surface; the condition of the surface above the mines, i. e., whether or not disturbed by ground movement; the occurrence of the ore and character of associated formations, particularly with respect to presence of jointing or slip planes, faults, etc.; failure of top rock in the old stopes; and the conditions under which water effects entrance into the mines, i. e., whether as a natural or forced flow. The study furnished fundamental data on the source of waters now entering the mines and that which may later enter due to collapse of top formations in. abandoned workings. The presence of jointing, or slip planes, has a pronounced influence upon the whole drainage problem. These present lines of least resistance to the water and, by weakening the top formations, cause fracturing of the overlying rock, allowing both surface and deep-seated waters to enter the mines.

Jan 1, 1927

By M. H. Richman, W. D. Sproul

THE indexing of a field-ion micrograph is in many cases similar to the indexing of the poles of a stereo-graphic projection.* If one has a standard projection as a guide, the task of indexing is relatively simple. In this way, field-ion micrographs of bcc and fcc wires have been oriented from projections available in most any text on X-ray diffraction. These books always illustrate the projections for the bcc and fcc structures and even for a particular hcp structure. There is no "standard" hcp projection because the angles between planes depend on the c/o ratio of the unit cell. In order to index field-ion micrographs of hcp metals, one must compute the angles between various planes—a rather laborious task. In recent work,, we have had to identify the structure and index the orientation of field-ion micrographs of the compounds WC and W,C. To overcome the problem of computing angles by hand or calculator, a program was written in Fortran lV for use on the IBM 360, Model 50 which will compute all angles between planeswith indices (hlklll) and (17,k,l2) in the range from (447) to (444) for any given c/o ratio. The program, which is more specific than that of Camp and clum, was so written as to take advantage of the multiplicity of the hexagonal system, and, for the limits defined above, only 26,649 values out of a possible 265,721 values had to be computed. This is a 90 pct saving in time (and cost) and was accomplished in the following way. Because the lattice parameters of the hexagonal crystal system are defined such that: a = b * c [1] the I index does not enter into the multiplicity (i.e., it cannot be transposed with the h or k indices), and all possible values of h and I, from 4 to 4 must be used—a total of eighty-one combinations. The index h2 varies the most—it must assume values from - Ill,: to 3Ihl. The indices kl and k2 are always equal and vary

Jan 1, 1969

By Renato G. Bautista, David C. Lindholm

The results of scale-up studies on a continuous, multistage horizontal mixer-settler extractor are presented. The chemical and mechanical system involves the separation of lanthanum from a mixture of rare earth chlorides using di(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid as the solvent and dilute HCl as a scrub solution in a bench scale extractor. Each stage has a hold-up of 2.6 l. A single stage unit is utilized for scale- up studies. Results are obtained on four sizes of geometrically similar units, the largest being six times the volume of the original bench size. A unit operations technique is chosen so that mixing and settling can be examined independently. Variables examined include type of continuous phase, flow rate of inlet streams, and power input to the mixer. Inlet flow-rate ratios are kept constant for all tests. TWO potential methods of unbaffled pump-mixer scale-up are explored; the maintenance of constant impeller tip speed and constant power input. For the settler, the previously successful method of basing design on constant flow-rate per unit cross- sectional area is used.

Jan 1, 1977

By E. P. Klier, S. M. Grymko

The transformations in eutectoidal systems have been extensively studied as they occur in steels.&apos; As a consequence of these studies the martensite, bainite and pearlite reactions found for most steels are widely recognized. Further, because of the work of Smith and Lindlief2 and of Greninger and Troiano3 these reactions, except for the bainite reaction, are considered as typical for all eutectoidal systems. The primary alloy studied by Smith and Lindlief2 was a CuAl alloy of near eutectoid composition as was the alloy more recently studied by Mack.4 The transformations in these alloys were, for the most part, studied metallo-graphically, while an X ray analysis of structures was essentially wanting. It has appeared desirable, therefore, to investigate selected CuAl alloys at and slightly away from eutectoid composition. For this purpose three alloys were prepared containing 10.5,11.9 and 13.5 pct A1 respectively. The results of a metallographic and X ray analysis of structures obtained for isothermal transformation of the ß-phase are reported here for the 11.9 and 13.5 pct A1 alloys. Introduction The phase equilibria in the CuAl alloys of immediate concern are indicated in the equilibrium diagram section presented in Fig 1.5 The equilibrium and transition structures which have been reported in this system are as follows: a = copper rich terminal phase (f.c.c.) ß = high temperature eutectoidal phase (b.c.c.) r2 = aluminum-rich intermediate phase (r-brass structure) a&apos; = modified a-phase postulated by Bollenrath and Bungnrdt.26 ß1 = ordered ß (b.c.c.) ß&apos; = martensite structure: A1 < 13 pct (near h.c.p.) ß" = ß&apos; of Smith and Lindlief2 7&apos; = martensite structure: A1 > 13.5 pct (h.c.p.); ß2 of Bollenrath and Bungardt.26 The eutectoid transformation can be suppressed at sufficiently high cooling velocities. The ß-phase is then retained to about 500°C where ordering sets in. The ordering interval is not satisfactorily known but indirectly appears to be non-suppressible. Subsequent to the ordering reaction and consequently at lower temperatures, the ordered ß1 decomposes to a marten-sitic structure. The kinetics of these reactions and in particular those of the martensite reaction have an important bearing on the results obtained in this investigation. Since some confusion exists concerning certain reported aspects of these reactions, they will be considered in some detail. THE MARTENSITE REACTION The martensitic structure is formed on cooling through a critical range6

Jan 1, 1950

By RUSSELL C. FLEMING

THE important advances that have been made of recent years in mining and milling methods and in mechanical equipment at mines need no re- telling, but there has been a remarkable growth in one type of equipment which has gone nearly unnoticed. That is the increasing use of storage-battery locomotives underground. Since the war the number of these locomotives and their field of use have increased tremendously; their growing acceptance represents an al- most complete reversal of opinion from an earlier period when they were generally looked upon as in- adequate for the strain of mine service. At the time when storage-battery powered units were first making their bid for recognition, the use of power in haulage had already passed through several phases; hand tramming, rope haulage, compressed air locomotives, even gasoline locomotives, had all been used, ending finally in the general adoption of the electric trolley locomotive for practically all power-haulage requirements. It was, and is, conceded that the trolley loco- motive met more adequately the varied and severe conditions of mine service than any previous type of haul- age unit. Subsequent developments have had to endure comparison and surpass in performance that type of haulage before changes would be considered.

Jan 1, 1930

By Edward Hart

The specimen of glazy iron used for analysis was highly characteristic in appearance. It was made at one of the furnaces of the Glendon Iron Works, working a light burden of ore with a highly silicious cinder. There are very few records of analyses of this variety of iron. I have been able to find but the two given by Bell, and I add these to my analysis for comparison. Bell. 1. 2. Iron,......89.47* 88.18 90.70 Carbon, combined,.... 0.00 0.79 0.71 Graphite,......2.88 2.59 2 68 Silicon,......5.47 5 13 5.13 Manganese,.....1.54 0.77 0.56 Sulphur,......0.04 0.17 0.23 Phosphorus,.....0.60 1.12 1.12 Titanium,.....- 0.26 0.18 Calcium,......0.00 0.22 0.20 Magnesium,.....0.00 0.06 0.03 100.00 9929 101.54

By W. M. Johns

The geological mapping of Lincoln and Flathead Counties was a five-year project undertaken by the Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology. This paper, written by the Project Geologist of the survey, is primarily concerned with the stratigraphy of the Belt rocks encountered in mapping. Lincoln and Flathead Counties of northwestern Montana are underlain by sedimentary rocks of the Belt Series of Precambrian age. In only a very small part of the area, near Libby and Troy, have economic mineral deposits been worked with any success. Most of the area has been inadequately mapped as to geology. The region is crossed by the Great Northern Railway and served by the Pacific Power and Light Co.; officials of these two companies believed that with better geologic maps, prospecting might be stimulated and lead to the discovery of mineral resources that would contribute to new economic development within the area. A cooperative mapping agreement was proposed jointly by the two companies to the Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology in May 1958, and thus was born the Kootenai-Flathead five-year project. The dual objectives of this project are: 1) the possible location of mineral deposits of economic value, and 2) the &apos;&apos;stimulation of prospecting exploration" by others. This was to be achieved by geologic mapping of some 6800 sq miles and by establishing a field office in Kalispell where prospectors could come to have their rocks and minerals identified and receive geological advice on their problems. This writer has finished four field seasons as Project Geologist and thus became familiar with the Belt section in the Libby, Yaak River, Ural, Thompson Lakes, Pleasant Valley, and Stryker quadrangles (see Fig. 1). Progress on the project is given in annual reports issued by the Bureau.* This *Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology, Bulletins 12 (1959), 17 (1960), and 23 (1961). paper is concerned essentially with the stratigraphy of the Belt rocks so far encountered in mapping. PREVIOUS WORK IN THE AREA Willis28 made the first study of the stratigraphy and structure in the Lewis and Livingston Ranges of Glacier Park just east of the project area. In 1904, Daly made a study of the Belt rocks of the 49th parallel, using the names from bottom up, Creston, Kitchener, Moyie, and Gateway, for rocks ranging in age from that of Prichard to that of basal Missoula group. Walcott26 studied the Belt rocks exposed in the Mission Range (see Fig. 1) and other areas to the south of the area under discussion. Calkins and McDonald made a reconnaissance of northern Idaho and northwestern Montana in 1905. Calkins was the first to use Walcott&apos;s term &apos;Ravalli&apos; as a group name for the strata equivalent to the Burke, Revett, and St. Regis formations (see Table I). Clapp worked on the Belt of western Montana (including Lincoln and Flathead Counties) throughout his lifetime. The Fentons9 studied the Belt of Glacier Park and

Jan 1, 1962

By GEORGE D. RAMSAY

WHEN the Ironton blast furnace of the Columbia Steel , Co. was first put into operation the iron ore was mined frol11 the deposit near Iron Springs, Utah. This is principally a hematite with 12 to 20 per cent of magnetite finely disseminated throughout the ore. It varies from a fairly soft broken rock structure to that which is hard and compact. In the broken form it will weigh about 150 lb. per cu. ft., and in place the density is approximately 250 lb. per cu. ft. The first ore received for the blast furnace was crushed so as to pass through approximately a 4-in. square opening screen. A typical screen test of this ore is shown in Table 1.

Jan 1, 1935

By H.E. Brauer

Among the zinc base alloys used for casting in metal moulds, pnrticularly die casting, those alloys containing aluminum usually together with copper, are probably the most widely used. The reason lies in their desirable mechanical properties and the fluidity and absence of hot shortncss which facilitate ca,sting. Objection to the use of these alloys may be raised on account of the rather frequent instances of failure of a type variously described as disintegration, exfoliation and intererystalline corrosion. In all cases which have come to our kno~vlcdge where the conditionsof service were known, failure has occurred upon cxposurc to moisture and heat varying from a hot moist atmosphere to lligh pressure steam. RIoreover, the alloys described in all such roses contain impurities or alloying metals which the present authors have found to have enormous accelerating effects on intererystalline oxid:~t&apos;ion in zinc-aluminurn alloys. Thus Williams1 experimented with an alloy containing a large percentage of tin exposed in Cuba. Baucr2 reports failure of a boiler plug containing over 1 per cent. of impurities, doubtless lead for the must part, and Rawdon&apos;s3 examinations were madc on an alloy containing 0.1 per cent. lead also exyosctl to thc Tropics. No thorough investigation of the nature and cause of this type of failure has been made heretofore, so far as the authors are aware, although Rawdon correctly classified it as internal oxidation. We have, therefore, carried out this investigation in order to det&apos;ermine the exact nature of this phenonienon and the effect of other metals present as impurities or intentional additions in accelerating or retarding it. In the appendix we include a considerable amount of data which may be valuable in selecting an alloy combining good physical properties with high resistance to oxidation. At the time this work was undertaken the best available equilibrium *Investigator, Metal Section, Research Division, The New Jersey Zinc Company. &apos;H. W. Williams—Jour. Am. Inst. of AIet,als, Vol. 11, p. 221 (1917). 2o. Bauer—ZeiL, fiir i&apos;vletall Kunde, Vol. 12, .No. 7, pp. 129-31 (1920). 3H. S. Rawdon—Trans. Am. Elcctrochcmic.al Society (1921).

Jan 1, 1923

By H. E. Brauer

Among the zinc base alloys used for casting in metal moulds, pnrticularly die casting, those alloys containing aluminum usually together with copper, are probably the most widely used. The reason lies in their desirable mechanical properties and the fluidity and absence of hot shortncss which facilitate ca,sting. Objection to the use of these alloys may be raised on account of the rather frequent instances of failure of a type variously described as disintegration, exfoliation and intererystalline corrosion. In all cases which have come to our kno~vlcdge where the conditionsof service were known, failure has occurred upon cxposurc to moisture and heat varying from a hot moist atmosphere to lligh pressure steam. RIoreover, the alloys described in all such roses contain impurities or alloying metals which the present authors have found to have enormous accelerating effects on intererystalline oxid:~t&apos;ion in zinc-aluminurn alloys. Thus Williams1 experimented with an alloy containing a large percentage of tin exposed in Cuba. Baucr2 reports failure of a boiler plug containing over 1 per cent. of impurities, doubtless lead for the must part, and Rawdon&apos;s3 examinations were madc on an alloy containing 0.1 per cent. lead also exyosctl to thc Tropics. No thorough investigation of the nature and cause of this type of failure has been made heretofore, so far as the authors are aware, although Rawdon correctly classified it as internal oxidation. We have, therefore, carried out this investigation in order to det&apos;ermine the exact nature of this phenonienon and the effect of other metals present as impurities or intentional additions in accelerating or retarding it. In the appendix we include a considerable amount of data which may be valuable in selecting an alloy combining good physical properties with high resistance to oxidation. At the time this work was undertaken the best available equilibrium *Investigator, Metal Section, Research Division, The New Jersey Zinc Company. &apos;H. W. Williams—Jour. Am. Inst. of AIet,als, Vol. 11, p. 221 (1917). 2o. Bauer—ZeiL, fiir i&apos;vletall Kunde, Vol. 12, .No. 7, pp. 129-31 (1920). 3H. S. Rawdon—Trans. Am. Elcctrochcmic.al Society (1921).

Jan 1, 1923

By P. B. Bucky

IN this day of steady progress in the mining industry, especially along mechanical lines, the question of whether to discard present equipment for that of a new type often engages the minds of many officials of mining companies. The rapid strides made from year to year sometimes cause this question to be brought up within a year after new equipment has been purchased and installed. It is a moot question whether a machine that has been purchased last year should be replaced by a new one put on the market this year. As I see it, the reasons for the replacement of present equipment may be summed up as follows: (1) because of increased safety; (2) because of legal regulations; (3) because of increased profits. I think all of us, as engineers, will endeavor to put in as safe equipment as it is possible to devise. The tendency of mining companies in that direction is very gratifying.

Jan 1, 1930

Paper withdrawn from publication September 8,1977, after book was printed. Pages 258.272 are therefore omitted.

Jan 1, 1977

By F. C. Canney

Geochemical prospecting seeks hidden mineral deposits by sampling for variations in the chemical composition of naturally occurring materials. Usually the samples are of soils and other products of weathering and erosion—surface materials extremely susceptible to contamination by human activities. Except when a survey is conducted well away from populated areas, contamination is an ever-present hazard. The program&apos;s success is particularly endangered when the contaminants are the elements sought; if these occur erratically throughout an area, spurious anomalies completely unrelated to mineralized areas can be formed. Evenly distributed contamination can be dangerous too, if it raises the background to such a level that true anomalies can no longer be easily detected. Suppose, for example, that in an area where the lead background is 20 parts per million the soil over a lead vein contains 1000 ppm of lead. Here the contrast would be 50 to 1, which is very satisfactory for geochemical surveying. Now if 1000 ppm of lead from some source were added evenly to the soil in this area, the contrast would be reduced to about 2 to 1, and the anomaly would no longer be readily detectable because a threshold of significance twice the value of the background is the minimum generally used for interpreting geochemical data. Of the many possible sources of contamination, probably most important are smelter fumes, which may distribute large quantities of metal contaminants over many square miles of ground. For several reasons, the investigation reported here was begun in the Coeur d&apos;Alene district in northern Idaho: 1) a lead smelter has been operated in this district since 1917 and an electrolytic zinc plant since 1928, and presumably the contamination patterns are strongly developed; 2) to evaluate the usefulness of certain geochemical techniques, V. C. Kennedy and S. W. Hobbs of the USGS had already studied the distribution of copper, lead, and zinc in the soils (both in background areas and other veins) and in the water and plants, providing a criterion for measuring the magnitude and effect of soil contamination; 3) one of the economically important parts of the district lies south of the South Fork of Coeur d&apos;Alene River and within a radius of five miles of the reduction plants near Smelterville (Fig. 1). In this area, and in the entire district, conventional methods of prospecting are hindered by heavy vegetation and thick soil cover, and the possibility of contamination by smelter fumes has discouraged geochemical prospecting. Should data reveal that geochemical prospecting could be done successfully in such an area, a particularly useful tool would be available to mining companies and prospectors searching for concealed orebodies in this economically important part of the district. The field work on which this report is based was done from July 28 to 31, 1955. It should be emphasized that this was reconnaissance study only, and therefore far from exhaustive. Previous Investigations in U. S. : The first geochemical survey known to have been affected by contamination was conducted in 1940—a geobotan-ical reconnaissance made in the Michigan copper district by a private company. Geologists found striking variations in the copper content of oak and maple leaves, but unfortunately the high copper isograds of the study seemed to be related more to the Calumet and Hecla copper smelter fall-out than to mineralized ground.&apos; The leaves of one oak tree near the smelter contained 0.4 pct Cu. Similar contamination was reported by Clarke (Ref. 2, p. 41), who conducted experimental geochemical soil and botanical surveys at Ray, Ariz. He found that the leaves of oak trees growing in unmineralized ground near Superior, Ariz., contained more copper than the leaves of oak trees growing on the capping of the Ray orebody and attributed this fact to contamination from the fumes of the Magma smelter at Superior. According to H. E. Hawkes,3 soils and stream sediments in the Superior area are also severely contaminated. Hawkes&apos; work there has shown a copper content averaging 0.5 pct in the surface horizons of soils within one mile of the smelter stack. Samples taken only a few inches below the anomalous surface samples showed only background copper values. In 1950 L. C. Huff&apos; of the USGS made a geochemical survey in an area near Jerome, Ariz., and found considerable zinc and copper in the soils over unmineralized basalt close to Clarkedale, Ariz., and over limestone close to Jerome. As the amounts were notably greater than could reasonably be expected to be derived from the underlying rocks, Huff suspected airborne contamination from the smelter at Clarkedale. Description of Area: The area sampled in detail (Fig. 1) for the study presented here is one of strong relief. The dominant watercourse is the westward-flowing South Fork of the Coeur d&apos;Alene River. East of Kellogg the South Fork flows in a rather narrow canyon, but its valley floor widens considerably to the west where much of the flood plain is covered by an extensive veneer of mining, milling, and smelting debris. South of the South Fork and between Big Creek and Pine Creek is a mountainous area where

Jan 1, 1960