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By Robert Mehl

THE importance of the Widmanstätten structure to structure theory in metallography has been recognized by many writers.1 It is a structure produced by the precipitation of a new phase from a solid solution upon cooling as a result of changing solid solubility, and displays a characteristic appearance indicating a crystallographic relationship between the new phase and the original solid solution (Fig. 1). First discovered in 1808 by Alois de Widmanstätten2, the structure has been traced by analogy through many alloy systems. Particularly is this true of the steels. Sorby's classic work3 on the microstructure of iron and steel was in essence an attempt to explain the origin of this characteristic structure in meteoric iron. He observed in a Bessemer steel and in a cast-steel ingot structures which we now recognize as typical Widmanstätten figures.4 Osmond5 observed structures in a steel ingot analogous to those found in meteorites. Arnold and McWilliams6 obtained (and recognized) a

Jan 1, 1930

By E. J. MCOAUSTLAND

THE behavior of steel after overstrain and at moderate temperatures is fairly well known. It has been made the subject of much investigation, and our knowledge is clear and definite on many points. The ultimate raising of the elastic limit, after moderate overstrain, and the consequent lowering of the ductility, seem to be well established. It is also well understood that the immediate effect of overstrain is to lower the elastic limit, possibly to zero, but that if not interfered with, this limit will subsequently rise higher than before. The "tests after moderate temperature," reported in this paper, were undertaken to verify the above statements for the particular steel under investigation, and also to determine, if possible, the total time required for complete recovery from this state of overstrain. The behavior of overstrained steel at temperatures at or below 32° F. is not so well known. Tests made by Prof E. G. Coker, at McGill University,' show that steel, overstrained and subjected to cold, will remain in a state of overstrain for an indefinite period. I am not aware of any other published results of tests along this particular line. The effect of time and temperature on the recovery of steel from overstrain was made in 1902-3 the subject of sortie investigation in the laboratories of the College of Civil Engineering of Cornell University. A general plan was outlined in connection with the regular courses of instruction in testing of materials; but the press of routine work and the demands of the schedules on the time of the students were so great as to presage long delay in the completion of the work. Not much had been accomplished up to 1904-05, when Messrs. E. C.

May 1, 1906

By W. R. Hibbard

It has been proposed1 on the basis of slip and flow that the ideal deformation texture of drawn wire for face-centered cubic metals is a (111) direction parallel to the wire axis. Under these considerations, an intermediate [loo] texture is permissible but should eventually change to the stable [Ill] orientation. This theory does not explain why copper and its alloys containing up to about 30 pct nickel, 5 pct zinc and 1 pct aluminum were found to have a double [Ill], [100] texture, while alloys with at least 8 pct zinc and 2 pct aluminum developed essentially a single [Ill] texture.1,2 It does suggest, however, that the [loo] component of the former alloys should disappear with additional deformation.3 Some evidence exists to support this suggestion. Howald4 reported that annealed copper wire previously drawn 93.8 pct and 98.5 pct developed a single [Ill] texture. Since, in wire, the drawn and annealed textures are similar, these wires probably had a single [Ill] deformation texture before annealing. In addition, although cold rolled polycrystalline copper and 80-20 brass were found to form different types of pole figures,5,6 single crystals of these metals when rolled from the stable (110) [112] orientation were found to produce essentially the same polo figure.7.8 It may be, therefore, that while the addition of solute elements changes the path by which the final texture is obtained, the final texture is not changed. Experimental Results The wires remaining from the previous investigation1 already drawn about 50 pct reduction in diameter were further drawn to 86 pct and then to 96.4 pct total reduction in diameter. The textures were determined after these stages by transmission X ray photograms taken with a copper K-alpha beam rotated 0 degrees toward the wire axis. It was found that the ratio of the [111].] and [100] intensities of the double texture in copper and its alloys containing 0.94 pct aluminum, 30.70 pct nickel, 2.61 pct zinc and 4.99 pct zinc increased from about 3:l for the 50 pct reduction to about 9:l for the 86 pct reduction. After 96.4 pct reduction, these wires exhibited essentially a single [lll] texture. Summary Thus, the drawn wire deformation texture of copper and its alpha solid solution alloys containing aluminum, nickel or zinc is essentially a single [Ill] texture as predicted by theoretical considerations of slip and flow.' For copper and its alloys containing up to about 1 pct aluminum, 5 pct zinc and at least 30 pct nickel, an intermediate [loo] component is found after about 50 pct reduction in diameter, but disappears after about 95 pct reduction in diameter. For alpha solid solution alloys containing at least about 2 pct aluminum and 8 pct zinc the single [Ill] texture is developed considerably more easily and is found after about 50 pct reduction in diameter. No explanation of this compositional effect is apparent. Similar work is contemplated for cold rolled and cold compressed alloys. References 1. w. R. Hibbard, Jr. and M. K. Yen: Trans. AIME 175, 126. Metals Tech., Feb. 1948, TP 2334. 2. W. R. Hibbard, Jr. and D. E. Trout, 11: Trans. AIME 185, 620. Jnl. of Melals, Sept. 1949, TN 18. 3. W. R. Hibbard. Jr.: Disc. of R. M. Brick's paper on Deformation Textures, ASM Symp. on Cold Working of Metals, Oct. 1948. 4. T. S. Howald: Disc. of Ref. 1. Trans. AIME, 175, 126. Melals Tech. Aug. 1948, TP 2449. 5. R. M. Brick, D. L. Martin and R. P. Angier: Trans. ASM (1943) 31, 675. 6. 0. Dahl and F. Pawlek: Zlsch. Melall. (1936) 28, 266. 7. C. S. Barrett and F. W. Steadman: Trans. AIME (1942) 147, 57. 8. J. E. Burke and C. S. Barrett: Trans. AIME 175, 106. Melals Tech., Feb. 1948. TP 2327.

Jan 1, 1950

By J. P. Zannaras

If we assume that testing of the model started at time t1, that time t2 was the instant at which the elastic limit of the material was passed at the points of the maximum stress, and that at time t3 the failure of the model was completed as shown in the typical photograph (Fig. I), then actually the photograph shows the final results of what took place between time t2 and t3. By the principle of similitude all conclusions drawn from the behavior of the model were applicable and valid for actual mine roofs up to the time t2 after time t2 motions and friction came into play during the destruction of the model. The events between t2 and t3 and the photograph itself are not representative of the events expected in an actual mine roof unless corrections imposed by the principle of similitude are made. It can therefore be stated that all conclusions and observations of the author from the photographs are applicable only to his small-scale experiments and not to actual mine roofs. Without investigation of the true stresses or the combined maximum stress induced in the beds it has been assumed by the author that failure occurred solely due to bending stress caused by loading of the beds. (The author states that D was taken to be the theoretical strain given by elementary beam theory.) Fig. 1 shows that the beds were clamped together. This clamping was necessary to prevent slipping of the beds due to the horizontal shear. However, this clamping caused an uncontrolled and undertermined com-pressive stress S at the end of the beds, and this com-pressive stress caused a true tensile stress ?S (? PoiS-son ratio). This true tensile stress combined with the tensile stress produced at the end of the beds due to loading (fixed beam uniformly loaded), and the horizontal shear which is maximum at the end appears to be the most probable maximum stress produced in the beds. It is therefore evident that the author in performing this experiment has introduced stresses in the model not existing or dissimilar to actual mine roofs, and therefore his conclusions may be applicable to his small-scale experiments but inapplicable to actual mine roofs. Louis A. Panek (author's reply)—The discusser's difficulty is related to mechanics of materials rather than similitude. The effect of time did not enter into the tests in any way, being simply excluded from consideration in this study, because all quantitative results entering into the design equations are based on measured (between time t1 and time t2) bending strains that are well below the breaking strain (i.e., in the elastic range) for the model material. Time does not become a significant factor until the rock stress reaches 80 to 90 pct of the breaking stress." The objective of this investigation was not to predict that bolted roof will fail after time t, but was instead to develop a safe roof, that is, roof in which the bending strain is much less than (say less than 50 pct of) the breaking strain. The models tested to failure had no direct bearing on the design equations. Although for some rocks time may influence the magnitude of stress or strain at which fracture occurs, breaking stress or breaking strain values were not employed for any purpose in this investigation. Tests to failure were made only to obtain additional evidence regarding the behavior of the bolted laminae' as evinced by the locations of the cracks. As stated in the last paragraph of the paper, if one wishes to predict the time or stress conditions for which the roof will fail, additional information is required. The reason for clamping the laminae is to make them behave liked clamped beams, which closely approximate the clamped-plate condition of the actual mine roof beds (Ref. 5, p. 1; Ref. 6). The writer has previously demonstrated that the bending stresses induced by centrifugal loading in a clamped model beam are in agreement with those predicted by theory;' hence clamping has no significant effect on the bending ,trains measured during a test. Moreover, actual ,in, roof beds are likewise subject to a clamping effect due to weight of superincumbent strata carried by the pillars or ribs on each side of the opening. It is emphasized that this study was restricted to evaluating only the reinforcing effect produced by the bolts. Procedures employed in the experiments and in the data analysis were such as to deliberately exclude the effects of other factors. The objections offered are therefore invalid,

Jan 1, 1957

By Waldemar Lindgren

FIFTEEN years ago, in his presidential address before the Washington Academy of Sciences,1 Alfred H. Brooks said: "Applied geology can only maintain its present high position by continuing the researches which advance the knowledge of basic principles. Future progress in applied geology depends on progress in pure geology." Early in 1927, Dr. David White, then chairman of the Division of Geology and Geography of the National Research Council, appointed a committee "On the Processes of Ore Deposition," which was the first recognition by the Council of this branch of applied geology. This committee will not be able to solve the many complex problems involved; it can only clear the way, survey the field, state the problems and encourage systematic research. This short paper aims to outline and to analyze the present status of this kind of geological research, to ascertain the quality of the work and to suggest lines that might profitably be followed. INCREASING DEMAND FOR GEOLOGISTS Economic geology, or the art of geology, could develop only after the principles of geology and mineralogy had been established. Before that time it was merely a collection of trade rules accompanied by more or less wild speculations. Thus we observe the beginnings of economic geology in the period 1770-1820. Soon afterwards, the State Surveys were established in this country, with the realization that the natural resources should be investigated and described. Geology was hardly yet equal to the task of scientific research in relationships and genesis, however, and there followed a period of discouragement and stagnation. In the meanwhile, pure geology had again registered progress, and, based on its principles and also on the rapid mining development in the Cordilleran region, the present phase of the study of ore deposits began to take form. Raphael Pumpelly, S. F. Emmons and G. F. Becker were among the pioneers in this movement. The United States Geological Survey was organized. Ore deposits were scientifically described and studied along lines of structure and mineralogy; theories of genesis were advanced, not always permanent but based on sound induction.

Jan 1, 1928

Jan 1, 1969

By M. R. J. Wyllie

Eight laboratory-prepared aqueous base drilling muds representing common mud types, and 15 aqueous base drilling muds sampled in the field, have been used in an experimental investigation of the relationship between the streaming potential developed across a mud filter cake and the differential pressure causing filtrate flow. It has been established that the relationship is of the form, ES = kPy, where Es is the streaming potential, P the differential pressure and k and y are constants for any particular mud system at constant temperature. Beyond a certain minimum thickness this relationship is independent of filter cake thickness. Experiment has shown that both k and y are temperature dependent parameters and that in certain mud systems there is a critical value of P above which the simple relationship Es = kPY ceases to hold. The constant k tends to be a function of the mud resistivity at 77ºF, but the exponent y has not been found to be related to any commonly measured mud property. Certain field experiments are described which serve to demonstrate that the total SP (self potential) developed opposite a formation may be quantitatively accounted for as the algebraic sum of an electrochemical potential and an electrokinetic potential. A chart to permit the simple use of mean solution activities in the interpretation of electrochemical SP data is given and its use described. Various field methods for computing the electrokinetic SP component of the total SP are considered and rejected as being unduly complicated and inaccurate. It is shown that the employment of low resistivity drilling muds is essential if optimum accuracy is desired in the use of the S.P. curve for the purpose of computing connate water salinities by the electrochemical SP method. The use of such low resistivity drilling muds is accordingly recommended. INTRODUCTION In a previous paper' a quantitative analysis of the electrochemical compovent of the SP (self potential) curve was made and it was shown that the electrochemical* emf, E, could be expressed as E = ZtRT/F In a,/a,, where t is the transference number of the chloride ion, R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature of the formation water and mud, a, the mean activity of the connate water (assumed to be sodium chloride) and a, the mean activity of the mud (as sodium chloride). The essential accuracy of this expression was confirmed by an investigation 2 of the SP kicks opposite sands of known water salinity. The logs examined had been routine runs in oil wells in a number of Mid-Continent states. Further confirmation of the original analysis of the electrochemical SP is implicit in the paper by Tixier3 wherein a relationship between the SP and the ratio of connate water and mud resistivities, based only on field data, is given. Allowing for the fact that mud and connate water resistivities were used instead of activities, and that electrokinetic effects were ignored, the constant reported by Tixier is essentially 2tRT/F. The error involved in the universal substitution of resistivities for activities will receive further reference below. Possible reasons for the fact that the electrochemical properties of shales do not appear to be significantly dependent upon either the nature or the quantity of cation exchange materials, such as clays, they contain has been considered at some length by Wyllie and Patnode.4 In the same paper, the probable effects of shale thickness and compaction on electrochemical efficiency, and hence the inherent difficulty of obtaining reliable laboratory-scale data, were also pointed out. However, it is

Jan 1, 1951

By M. R. J. Wyllie

Eight laboratory-prepared aqueous base drilling muds representing common mud types, and 15 aqueous base drilling muds sampled in the field, have been used in an experimental investigation of the relationship between the streaming potential developed across a mud filter cake and the differential pressure causing filtrate flow. It has been established that the relationship is of the form, ES = kPy, where Es is the streaming potential, P the differential pressure and k and y are constants for any particular mud system at constant temperature. Beyond a certain minimum thickness this relationship is independent of filter cake thickness. Experiment has shown that both k and y are temperature dependent parameters and that in certain mud systems there is a critical value of P above which the simple relationship Es = kPY ceases to hold. The constant k tends to be a function of the mud resistivity at 77ºF, but the exponent y has not been found to be related to any commonly measured mud property. Certain field experiments are described which serve to demonstrate that the total SP (self potential) developed opposite a formation may be quantitatively accounted for as the algebraic sum of an electrochemical potential and an electrokinetic potential. A chart to permit the simple use of mean solution activities in the interpretation of electrochemical SP data is given and its use described. Various field methods for computing the electrokinetic SP component of the total SP are considered and rejected as being unduly complicated and inaccurate. It is shown that the employment of low resistivity drilling muds is essential if optimum accuracy is desired in the use of the S.P. curve for the purpose of computing connate water salinities by the electrochemical SP method. The use of such low resistivity drilling muds is accordingly recommended. INTRODUCTION In a previous paper' a quantitative analysis of the electrochemical compovent of the SP (self potential) curve was made and it was shown that the electrochemical* emf, E, could be expressed as E = ZtRT/F In a,/a,, where t is the transference number of the chloride ion, R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature of the formation water and mud, a, the mean activity of the connate water (assumed to be sodium chloride) and a, the mean activity of the mud (as sodium chloride). The essential accuracy of this expression was confirmed by an investigation 2 of the SP kicks opposite sands of known water salinity. The logs examined had been routine runs in oil wells in a number of Mid-Continent states. Further confirmation of the original analysis of the electrochemical SP is implicit in the paper by Tixier3 wherein a relationship between the SP and the ratio of connate water and mud resistivities, based only on field data, is given. Allowing for the fact that mud and connate water resistivities were used instead of activities, and that electrokinetic effects were ignored, the constant reported by Tixier is essentially 2tRT/F. The error involved in the universal substitution of resistivities for activities will receive further reference below. Possible reasons for the fact that the electrochemical properties of shales do not appear to be significantly dependent upon either the nature or the quantity of cation exchange materials, such as clays, they contain has been considered at some length by Wyllie and Patnode.4 In the same paper, the probable effects of shale thickness and compaction on electrochemical efficiency, and hence the inherent difficulty of obtaining reliable laboratory-scale data, were also pointed out. However, it is

Jan 1, 1951

By A. H. Tousley, C. L. Vickers

The author presents a history of the development of the Port of Long Beach from its beginning in 1905 to the present construction of a new bulk loading facility. In describing this new facility, emphasis is placed on such aspects as rail car and truck handling, gravity yard, rotary car dumping, bottom dumping, car dumping equipment, feeding and conveying, ship-loader-stockpiler, stockpiling and reclaim, dust control, and construction problems. Development of the Port of Long Beach, Calif. (see Fig. I), began in 1905. In that year private Long Beach interests acquired 800 acres of marshland in the Inner Harbor area and initiated a program of channel dredging and land reclamation. Efforts to establish a municipal port began a short time later and culminated in the opening of Pier 1 in 1911. An event of even greater significance to the port future also occurred in 1911. This was the tideland grant enactment by the state legislature that conveyed to the city of Long Beach all of the state's rights in the tidelands located within the city boundaries. The grant stipulated that all revenue produced from the tidelands be used for the development of navigation, commerce, and fisheries. During the next 15 years up to 1926, the port's commercial growth was steady, although relatively slow. During this period, several fundamental steps in the development of a major harbor were accomplished. These included the creation of the Board of Harbor Commissioners in 1917, the dredging of the Inner Harbor and entrance channel to accommodate deep draft vessels, and the correction of a serious silting problem through construction of the Los Angeles River Flood Control Channel. These efforts bore fruit during the ensuing 10 years in the establishment of more than $30,000,000 worth of industrial plants and private marine terminals in the Inner Harbor. Commerce over municipal wharves also increased more rapidly, and it became necessary to start the development of the harbor in a seaward direction. In 1936, oil was discovered in the harbor area, and the first Harbor Dept. well was brought in 2 years later. It soon became evident that the city of Long Beach would receive substantial revenue that, under the terms of the state grant of 1911, must be used in the development of the port. It was further realized that to properly guide and coordinate such development, a long range comprehensive plan was essential. The Board of Harbor Commissions contracted with G. F. Nicholson and J. F. Collins, consulting engineers, for the preparation of such a report that was completed in 1940. The Nicholson-Collins report proposed the development of an East Basin, between the entrance channel and the Los Angeles River, and a West Basin in the area now occupied by the Long Beach Naval Shipyard. Twenty full-size berths were to be provided in the East Basin and more than fifty berths in the West Basin. The report recommended extensive modern terminal facilities for handling waterborne cargo. Attention was given to improvement of the street and highway system to give better vehicular access and to avoid congestion within the port. To a large extent the recommendations of the Nicholson-Collins report were followed in the subsequent development of the East Basin. This development was greatly accelerated by World War 11, with its need for increased oil production and additional shipping facilities. The wartime and immediate postwar construction was largely concentrated on Pier A, with the development of Piers B, C and D following in more recent years. An important factor in the planning of these piers was their dual function as oil drilling sites and cargo piers. The Navy's acquisition of the West Basin area made it necessary to depart from the Nicholson-Collins plan and find other areas for future expansion. At the present time only one Inner Harbor Port-owned area having protected deep water frontage remains undeveloped. This is the property fronting on Channel 2 in the Inner Harbor acquired in December 1957, from Pacific Dock and Terminal Co. The growth of the port has been in a southerly direction since the construction of the Long Beach Naval Shipyard in the West Basin area. Recent extension of Piers F, G and J into the ocean follows typical port construction methods developed during the expansion of the Middle Harbor during the last 20 years.

Jan 1, 1963

By Richard B. Greenwalt

INTRODUCTION Direct reduction of iron ores has unquestionably become established as an important step in the worldwide steelmaking industry. The history of this development has been long and fraught with difficulty. In 1800, Champlain suggested the direct reduction concept using carbon and a shallow hearth vessel. Roughly 100 years later, Jones attempted a commercial process using carbon and producer gas in a rotary kiln. During the early years of this century, numerous attempts were made to start commercial direct reduction plants using such processes as Hoganas, Wiberg, Krupp-Renn, and others. Most of these were short lived, being abandoned due to a variety of technical and economical factors. Today, however, a new generation of direct reduction processes has emerged. We enter 1977 with at least 40 commercial plants in operation using 15 processes in 14 countries. These plants have combined total annual capacity of roughly 10 million tonnes of direct reduced product. Many articles have been written, and projections made, concerning the future growth potential for direct reduction. As is al- ways the case with projections, the numbers vary, but the outlook does not. Anyone who participated in the years of effort that have gone into this field of endeavor should be excited and justly rewarded by noting the shape of the curve in Figure 1.

Jan 1, 1977

Ahrenholz, Herman William, Jr., Student, Lehigh Univ Bethlehem, Pa. '35 Allen, Carl A., Student, Colorado School of Mines Golden, Colo. '35 Allen, Paul W., Student, Mass. Inst. of Tech Cambridge, Mass. '35 Allen, R. M., Jr., Student, Virginia Polytechnic Inst., "G" Co Blacasburg, Va. '35 Amberger, K. H., Student, Michigan College of Min. & Tech Houghton, Mich. '35 Andersen, Burton Lee, Student, School of Mines, Univ. of Washington Seattle, Wash. '35 Anderson, Joseph S., Student, Univ. of Texas El Paso, Tex. '35 Anderson, R. C., Student, Univ. of Washington Seattle, Wash. '35 Ansel, Gerhard 627 Clyde St., Pittsburgh, Pa. '34 Anutta, Frederick P., Student, Michigan College of Min. & Tech Houghton, Mich. '35 Apsouri, Constantin N., Graduate Student, Univ. of Arizona Tucson, Ariz. '35 Arakelian, Haig Mark, Student, Mass. Inst. of Tech Cambridge, Mass. '34 Archer, George K 1420 Court Pl., Denver, Colo. '34 Argall, George O., Jr., K. E. House Golden, Colo. '35 Argiielles, Alfredo, Student, Univ. of Texas El Paso, Tex. '35 Atwater, Ralph, Student, South Dakota School of Mines Rapid City, S. D. '35 Austin, Robert B., Miner, Page Mine, Federal Min. & Smelt. CoSpokane, Wash. '34

Jan 1, 1934

By Forrest F. Craig

Both early and more recent1 laboratory measurements of gas-oil relative permeabilities were made by subjecting oil-saturated cores to external gas drives. In these runs it was generally assumed that the flowing gas/oil ratio was constant at every point throughout the core. Using this assumption, the resulting equation for the gas-oil relative permeability ratio becomes A where Q is the flow rate at the producing end of the system. This relative permeability was then specified for the average saturation of the core. The assumption and resulting equation fail to recognize that in an external drive, the oil flow rate varies from zero at the injection end to a maximum at the producing end. The assumption also fails to consider the existence of a saturation gradient during an external drive. This saturation gradient is due solely to non-steady-state flow. Some authors2,3,4 have used this erroneous method of calculating relative permeability ratios from external drives. Other authors5,6,7 have used relative permeability ratios in calculating expected field performance by external drive, using Equation (1) and making the incorrect assumption that the saturation is uniform within the driven portion of the reservoir. To find the correct relation between the relative permeability. ratio at the average saturation and the produced gas/oil ratio, the insertion in Equation (1) of a factor, F, to adjust it for oil velocity gradient has been considered. The equation then takes the form Assuming that the oil velocity is directly proportional to the distance from the injection point leads to the conclusion that, for a linear system, the average oil velocity is one-half that at the producing end. Thus, the average gas/oil ratio is twice the produced gas/oil ratio, and Equation (2) is transformed into However, here again the existence of a saturation gradient is not recognized. The produced gas/oil ratio is related to the relative permeability ratio at the saturation of the outlet end of the system. It can be shown quite readily that, if the true log k,/k, saturation relationship is linear over small ranges of saturation, then d log kjko Where aaxv and u2 are the average and outlet saturations, respectively. Examination of Equation (3) shows that the factor F cannot have a single value over the whole saturation range. Another method of dealing with external drives is that of Buckley and Leverett.' Their method, which assumes no gas expansion and outlet end effects, considers fully the saturation gradient present due solely to the displacement mechanism during an external drive, and applies Equation (1) to each point along this gradient. The calculation of production history using relative permeability ratio is straightforward. However, the calculation of relative permeability ratios from production history by this method is impractical. In a recent paper, Welge,1 using an approach similar to that of Buckley and Leverett, presents a simplified method for determining the saturation at the producing end of the system. At thi; saturation, the relative permeability ratio calculated by Equation (1) applies exactly, after breakthrough of the stabilizej front. By this method, relative permeability ratios or production history may be calculated with equal ease. Use of this method as a laboratory tool in determination of relative permeability ratios by external drive requires the knowledge of the total injected fluid volume; in addition to the average saturation and producing ratio. As a preliminary test of this method of calculation, laborntory external gas drives were run on a 3% in. diameter, 11 in. long sample of Nellie Bly consolidated sandstone. This core sample had a permeability of 824 md and a porosity of 28.1 per cent. The driving fluid was air. Three different oils were used, having viscosities of 1.4, 9.8, and 125 cp, respectively. The runs were made under identical pressure differentials,

Jan 1, 1952

I. N. KNAPP, Ardmore, Pa. (written discussion*).-The possibility of storing natural gas in the sands f exhausted gas pools might be, in many cases, a, good engineering proposition, but it cannot be considered a practical business proposition tinder the usual competitive leasing and operating conditions that exist in the natural-gas business. Under the usual conditions of diversified land ownership and leasing with all lack of cooperation, various operators drill into the same pool or reservoir and drain out the gas under each other's land. To attempt to use for storage purposes the depleted sands f any one pool having such various competing ownerships would be highly impractical, considered from operating and business standpoints, unless there was cooperation with the interests owning adjacent wells and leases or the purchase f the same. Also, it would be very difficult to find out whether all old or abandoned wells in any pool had been properly, plugged and thus prevent the waste of gas brought from a distance for storage. Another objection to Mr. Panyity's proposition is the probability that no lease made in the past contemplated the use of a gas sand for storage purposes. Very likely, then, the operator would have a lawsuit on his hands for the unlawful use of a lease if he attempted the storage f such gas without first obtaining additional lease rights. In some instances salt water could not be pumped from a gas well in the customary way of pumping oil wells on account of the deposition of salt in the pump valves or in the working barrel or tubing. Very ingenious compressed air jets have been devised and arranged with suitable piping to blow out such salt-water accumulations. In many pools it would be impracticable to drill a water pocket below a gas sand, as suggested, since such deeper drilling would probably. intensify water troubles.

Jan 5, 1919

By Leo D. Jones

The use of the centrifuge for dewaxing lubricating oils grew out of the effort to secure better results than had been attained by the common "cold settling" process. This process was the only known method for dewaxing steam refined cylinder stock (600" F. fire test), the product known as "bright stock" being commonlyused for building up "pressed," i.e., dewaxed neutrals of, say, 200-sec. viscosity [to a higher value. The process consisted of mixing the cylinder stock with approximately one and one-half times its volume of naphtha, heating, to dissolve completely all the oil and wax and then slowly chilling to about 15" F. in large insulated tanks. This caused the wax to precipitate. It was allowed to settle out by gravity. The supernatant liquid was then drawn off and the naphtha distilled off, leaving a still residue of bright stock. The sediment from the settling, of a slushy nature, was withdrawn. After removing the naphtha by distillation the residue was petrolatum. At some point in the process, preferably after the dilution but before chilling, the mixture was decolored by percolation through fuller's earth. The finished bright stock produced by this process had a cold test of about 50" F. Efforts to improve this by chilling to a lower temperature resulted in a considerable reduction in yield, and increased uncertainty of settling. Even when chilling to 15" F. it was not uncommon to find that after a week's waiting a tank had not settled. It was then necessary to heat and rechill. This uncertainty was a serious problem; in one case a refinery superintendent had men riveters hold pneumatic hammers against the tank for hours, hoping thus to cause agglomeration and settling of the wax. Yields of bright stock above 70 per cent, were uncommon. History of Centrifugal Application It is not surprising, therefore, that many attempts were made to improve upon the results obtained by cold settling. George H. Taber, vice-president of the Gulf Refining Co., Pittsburgh, Pa., made a number

Jan 1, 1924

By H. A. Coy, James A. Noble

The Mascot mines of the American Zinc Co. of Tennessee are situated at Mascot, Tenn., 14 miles northeast of Knoxville, on the Southern Railway. The district is centrally located in the Great Valley, or Appalachian Valley Province. Prior to 1900, a small output of zinc was obtained from oxidized ore mined in open pits. In 1900, a shaft was sunk to sulfide ore, and in 1903, a second shaft was put down, neither being as deep as 200 ft. The American Zinc Co. of Tennessee began drilling in 1911, and outlined an ore-body to which its No. 1 shaft was sunk, to a depth of 365 ft. Since that time, the American Zinc Co. of Tennessee has been the only operator in the district. The Federal mining laws have never been in operation in Tennessee and mining lands are as irregular in boundary and area as farm lands. Ownerships are generally held in fee. In most cases the surface and mineral rights are transferred together. Electric power is supplied at 66,000 volts by the Tennessee Power Co., from a hydro-electric plant at Parksville, Polk County, Tenn., 100 miles from Mascot. No other power is used, but an emergency steam plant is held ready in case of interruption of service. Labor is all native and non-union. Negroes are employed for most of the shoveling, and for a few miscellaneous jobs, but for almost no other work. Exploration Exploration is carried ahead of mining largely by surface drilling. Both churn and diamond drills are used. Holes are not spotted according to geometric plan, but to block out ore outlines with the least number of holes. Churn-drill cuttings from each 5-ft. run are mounted for formation record, and in ore ground, all the bailings from each 3 ft. of advance are sampled and assayed. Diamond-drill cores are sampled and a specimen core filed for formation record. In ore ground, all the core

Jan 1, 1925

By Guy W. Crane

The geology of the Tintie mining district, fully treated, would occupy an elaborate monograph. This less comprehensive paper is devoted primarily to the occurrence and origin of the orebodies of the district, while space is given to those phases of the general geology only which seem necessary to a proper setting of such a discussion. The first geological report on the Tintic district to be issued was that by Tower and Smith, published in 1899, in the form of a paper in Part III of the Nineteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, and also as Folio No. 65, Geologic Atlas of the United States. About four years ago a second investigation was begun by Waldemar Lindgren and G. F. Loughlin, of the U. S. Geological Survey. With the exception of a paper on the oxidized zinc ores of the Tintic district by Mr. Loughlin, the results of their work are still unpublished. The writer's acquaintance with the district began in the fall of 1913, and has extended over a period of about two years. 1. Location The Tintic district lies about 65 miles due south of Salt Lake City, and on the west central slope of the Tintic Mountains, a short range, which forms the connecting link between the Oquirrh Mountains on the north and the Canyon Range on the south—the group constituting the first of the Basin ranges to the west of the Wasatch Mountains. The productive portion of the district embraces an area about 6 miles long and 2 miles wide, which is divided between Juab and Utah Counties. Within this area are the towns of Eureka, Mammoth, Robinson, Silver City, and Knightsville. All these points are tapped by the Denver & Rio Grande and S. P., L. A. & S. L. Railways. 2. Topography As in most of the Basin ranges, topographic relief is strong, dropping rapidly from peaks of 8,100 ft. above sea level to elevations of 5,600 ft. in Tintic Valley on the west and 4,500 ft. in Goshen Valley on the east.

Jan 1, 1916

By C. R. Johnson, R. A. Greenkorn, E. G. Woods

A new method of reservoir evaluation called pulse-testins has been developed for describing formation properties between wells. Pulse-testing utilizes a sensitive differential-pressure gauge at a responding well to measure and record the response generated by a series of flow rate changes (pulses) at an adjacent or pulsing well. Since the pulse-test instruments have a sensitivity of about 0.001 psi, pulses of several hours or less in duration will generate a measurable response in most reservoirs. For this reason, many well pairs can be tested in a short period of time with little interference in field operations. Comparison of pulse-test results to conventional testing methods shows that the pulses obey unsteady-state, compressible-flow theory and thus provide a measure of both transmissibility (kh/µ) and storage (Fch). In additian, the method can be used qualitatively to describe communication across faults and between zones, and direction and tnagnitude of fracture trends. INTRODUCTION To obtain maximum usefulness of new reservoir analysis methods as well as to aid the field engineer in understanding local reservoir anomalies, improved methods are needed to describe heterogeneities in specific reservoirs. Optimum well spacing, equipment specifications, well completion design and especially the economics of pressure maintenance and secondary recovery programs depend on the extent and location of the heterogeneities that affect flow behavior in the field. One method for obtaining a measure of areal reservoir heterogeneity is an interference test. In the simplest interference test. constant-rate production or injection is initiated at one well and the effect of this flow is measured as pressure vs time at another well. Thus, during interference tests the flow characteristics of the formation are determined in situ. Despite their obvious usefulness in reservoir delineation. interference tests have not enjoyed frequent usage. Reasons for this have been the weeks or months required in many fields to obtain a pressure response measurable with conventional gauges, and the interruption of routine field operation during the field-wide shut-in normally required during these long times. Also, only average properties of the relatively large volume of the reservoir disturbed during these long times can normally be obtained — variations in properties between individual wells cannot be delineated. To eliminate these drawbacks of conventional tests, a special reservoir description technique called pulse testing' has been developed. Pulse-testing has several advantages that make it more convenient and practical for field use than interference tests. Valid tests are more certain because use of a series of flow disturbances gives rise to a diagnostic pressure response that can more readily be distinguished from unknown trends in reservoir pressure and other "noise." The time required is only a fraction of that for an interference test because a special, high-sensitivity differential pressure gauge can detect a much smaller pressure change. Variations in properties between individual wells can be delineated because of the relatively small volume of the reservoir disturbed during these short times. Finally, wells other than the pulsing and responding wells do not have to be shut in or carefully regulated.

Jan 1, 1967

By Howard S. Strouth

Investors and mining companies in the U. S. have recently shown increased interest in the Union of South Africa. This has been sparked partially by the founding in the U. S. of a large investment trust which will hold substantial shares in many of the leading gold and uranium producers. The average U. S, mining man's judgment of the Union, however, may be somewhat clouded by recent headline news. We are inclined to take a strong dislike to the stern measures of the present Union government with regard to its native majority. Others possibly think of South Africa in krms of a British colony which, under pressure of rising African nationalism, must eventually be abandoned. These concepts frequently suffer for lack of precise information.

Jan 5, 1959

First Session BRASS Wednesday, A.M., Nov. 29 Co-Chairmen: CARTER S. COLE, Staff Engineer, A.S.T.M. E. A. ANDERSON, Chief of Metals Section, Research Div., New Jersey Zinc Co. (of Pa.) Second Session BRASS Wednesday, P.M., Nov. 29 Co-Chairmen: D. K. CRAMPTON, Director of Research, Chase Brass and Copper Co., Inc. A. W. TRACY, Metallurgist, The American Brass Co. Dinner and Technical Session Wednesday Evening, Nov. 29 Toastmaster: N. L. MOCHEL, Manager Metallurgical Engineering, Westinghouse Electric Corp. Talk on "How Do Things Look Today and For the Future" RALPH KELLY, President, Baldwin Locomotive Works Technical Paper on Stress-Corrosion Cracking E. H. Dix, JR., Assistant Director of Research and Chief Metallurgist, Aluminum Company of America Third Session BRASS Thursday, A.M., Nov. 30 Co-Chairmen: W. B. PRICE, Director of Research, Scovill Manufacturing Co. A. L. JAMIESON, Associate Metallurgist, Frankford Arsenal First Session LIGHT METALS Thursday, P.M., Nov. 30 Co-Chairmen: L. L. WYMAN, Metallurgist, General Electric Co. M. A. HUNTER, Professor of Metallurgical Engineering and Head, Dept. of Metallurgical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Second Session LIGHT METALS Thursday Evening, Nov. 30 Co-Chairmen: R. T. WOOD, Chief Metallurgist, American Magnesium Corp. J. D. HANAWALT, Director, Metallurgical Dept., Dow Chemical Co. First Session STEEL Friday A.M., Dec. I Co-Chairmen: H. S. RAWDON, Chief, Division of Metallurgy, National Bureau of Standards A. L. FEILD, Director of Research, Rustless Iron and Steel Corp. First Session MISCELLANEOUS METALS Friday P.M., Dec. I Co-Chairmen: E. A. ANDERSON, Chief of Metals Section, Research Div., New Jersey Zinc Co. (of Pa.) CARTER S. COLE, Staff Engineer, A.S.T.M.

Jan 1, 1945

ALABAMA. Aldrich, Aldrich, W. F. Anniston, Noble, A. E. Auburn,' Brown, R. L. Bessemer Abbott, C. E., Ferguson, V., Williams, E. P. Birmingham, Aldrich, T. H., Aldrich, T. H., Jr., Allen, A. W., Bowron, J., Burbidge, T. A., Crawford, G. G, Crockard, F. H., Dimmick, F. D., Ellis, E.,E., Hiller, E., Johnson, G. R., Ludwig, C. P., McCormack, G B., McCrery, Moffett, C. A., Morris, B.H, Peters, R., Jr., Pill, J. R., Ramsay, E. Gadsden, Hudson, J. B. Helena, Squire, J. Holt, Shook, J. W. Huntsville, Moss. Lehigh, Toulmin. Rock Run, Garvin, J. M. Thomas, Kluttz, W. L., Johnson, J. E., Jr. University, Litchman, H. B., Smith, E. A. Woodward, Woodward, A. H.

Jan 1, 1910