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By W. H. Somerton

Many oil-producing formations contain significant amounts of clay. Because of the large surface area and reactivity of such surfaces, the response of the formations to various recovery processes may be dominated by the reactions of fine-grained minerals, including clay minerals, in the formations. Thus, the success or failure of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods may be controlled to a large extent by the amount and nature of these minerals in the formations to which the methods are being applied. One of the deterrents to the successful application of chemical EOR methods is the loss of chemicals injected into the formation, to non-oil recovery processes. These chemical loss processes include adsorption onto mineral surfaces, chemical reactions with rock and fluids in the formations, possibly leading to precipitation and plugging of the formation, and trapping of chemicals in parts of the rock structure so that they become unavailable for displacing oil. Chemicals that may be injected include surfactants, polymers and caustic solutions which react with organic acids in the crude oil to produce surfactants in-situ. These losses are most pronounced in fine-grained reservoir rocks containing substantial amounts of clays.

Jan 1, 1984

By David Oyler, Craig Compton

The The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Pittsburgh Research Laboratory (PRL) is continuing to investigate the behavior of fully grouted roof bolts in the weak roof rock of the Safety Research Coal Mine (SRCM). This paper describes the results of three studies: • A series of 24 pull tests of bolts installed fully grouted and overcored to leave 12 inches of grouted bolt. The tests compared the pull-out performance of offset-head roof bolts with that of standard 5/8-inch bolts; • A second series of 24 tests that compared the pull-out loads obtained by bolts installed with 1 ft of resin (a Short Encapsulation Pull Test or SEPT) to that of fully grouted bolts overcored to leave only 12 inches of grouted bolt, and; • An investigation into the pressures generated during the installation of fully grouted resin bolts. All of the bolts installed and pulled were overcored and removed from the roof after the pull tests to allow inspection of the resin. The first study found that there was no significant difference in pullout load between the offset-head bolts and the standard bolts. The second study, comparing the SEPT bolts and the partially-overcored fully grouted bolts, indicated that SEPT can significantly underestimate bolt anchorage grip factor, suggesting that the SEPT is a conservative measure of actual bolt performance. Significant loss of resin to cracks in the roof was observed in the bolts overcored in the SRCM. The third study explored one possible explanation for the resin loss, high pressures generated during bolt installation. These tests employed bolts installed in strain gauged steel tubes. The results confirmed that significant pressures (greater than 4,000 psi) can be generated during bolt installation. The results of the pressure tests, combined with the observations of resin loss in bolts installed in the SRCM, suggest that under some circumstances resin loss and under-encapsulation could take place and lead to degraded bolt performance. Glove fingering was observed in all recovered bolts to various degrees. The limited comparative data suggested that the effect of glove fingering ranged from slight to moderate. Complete mixing of the resin was observed on all of the 40 bolts recovered (28 fully grouted and 12 SEPT). Australian and U.S. resins were compared and the Australian resins were observed to have much smaller catalyst compartment areas and lower resin viscosities. These differences are suggested as potential explanations for occasional resin mixing problems noted in Australian resin bolt installations.

The Tenth International Conference of Directors of Safety in Mines Research was held in the United States from September 28 through October 2, 1959, at Hotel Webster Hall, Pittsburgh, Pa. The Conference was organized by the Federal Bureau of Mines. In accord with the program outlined at the Ninth Conference (1956, Heerlen, Holland), the papers submitted dealt with the following three subjects: 1. Safety of coal mine explosives 2. Explosion hazards in mines 3. Ignition and fires in mines Seventy papers were presented. There were eight technical sessions followed by an extended tour of the Bruceton facility of the Bureau of Mines on October 2. Simultaneous translation was provided in the three official languages of the Conference--English, French, and German.

Jan 1, 1962

By Albert L. Toenges

This paper is the third of a series4/ that describes some methods and practices of mining coal mechanically where operations are conducted on more than one shift. The mining of coal by means of mechanical devices has emphasized the need for continued study of the relationship, of these devices to existing physical conditions and to planning of the operations for increased safety and economy. The purpose of this investigation is to stud the operations of different types of mechanization used in mines under various systems of mining and physical conditions to reach conclusions as to the safest and most economical methods and practices of mining. Physical conditions very in different and in the same mining districts and determine, together with economical conditions, the systems of mining and the types of mechanical loading equipment used. The information presented in this paper

Jan 1, 1941

By E. F. Divers

This Bureau of Mines report describes the results of a program to develop small, rugged mechanical dust collectors (scrubbers) with high dust collection efficiency and low energy comsumption for controlling dust in coal mining operations. All of the scrubbers described are similar in configuration and are powered by 6-hp, 2,000-ft3/min vane axial fans. Air pressure differential is less than 6 inches water column. Height of the scrubbers? including fan is less than 14 inches, width is less than 16 inches, and length is less than 45 inches. The flooded fibrous-bed scrubber achieved respirable (less than approximatey 7 µm) dust collection efficiencies of 95 percent. The small-diameter-cyclone scrubbers showed about 92 percent efficiency and can be best where excess water is a problem. The wetted brush scrubber showed 88 percent efficiency at low cost, and the wetted fan scrubber showed a slightly lower efficiency (87 percent) but offered the smallest size and cost. A suitable water droplet eliminator is described.

Jan 1, 1978

By S. L. Windes

This report presents physical and petrographic properties of approximately 60 types of rock from operating mines or mineral-investigation projects and supplements Repot of Investigations 4459, Physical Properties of Mine Rock (hereinafter referred to as Part I). The physical properties evaluated include the following: Apparent specific gravity Apparent porosity Compressive strength Flexural strength (modulus of rupture) Impact touchiness Abrasion hardness Scleroscope hardness Modulus of elasticity (Yourg?s modulus) Modulus of rigidity Specific damping capacity Longitudinal bar velocity

Jan 1, 1950

By K. K. Kelley

The collection and correlation of thermodynamic data concerning substances of metallurgical interest have constituted one of the major activities of the Pacific Experiment Station of the Bureau of Mines, at Berkeley, Calif., for the past several years. Earlier bulletins (32, 33, 34, 36, 36, 37, 38) s in this series are entitled: (1) Contributions to the Data on Theoretical Metallurgy. I. The Entropies of Inorganic Substances; (2) Contributions to the Data on Theoretical Metallurgy. II. High-Temperature Specific-Heat Equations for Inorganic Substances; (3) Contributions to the Data on Theoretical Metallurgy. III. The Free Energies of Vaporization and Vapor Pressures of In¬ organic Substances; (4) Contributions to the Data on Theoretical Metallurgy. IV. Metal Carbonates--Correlations and Applications of Thermodynamic Properties; (5) Contributions to the Data on Theoretical Metallurgy. V. Heats of Fusion of Inorganic Substances; (6) Contributions to the Data on Theoretical Metallurgy. VI. A Revision of the Entropies of Inorganic Substances-1935; and (7) Contributions to the Data on Theoretical Metallurgy. VII. The Thermodynamic Properties of Sulphur and its Inorganic Compounds. The present paper collects and discusses thermodynamic data relating to metal carbides and nitrides, with the view of obtaining usable heat and free energy of formation relationships. Pertinent data on both classes of substances are difficult to obtain experimentally and consequently are extremely rare; it is therefore necessary in many cases, if equations are to be derived, to introduce certain approximations and assumptions. Lack of adequate means of checking results by utilizing data of different types, such as was done frequently in the bulletins dealing with carbonates and sulphates, are readily apparent to anyone who has made even a cursory examination of the available information. Consequently, some of the relationships derived undoubtedly will be found to be inaccurate when more or better data become available. Nevertheless, in view of the importance of some of these substances, it appears worth while to consider the information available at present and to attempt the formulation of as complete a

Jan 1, 1937

By C. H. Manney

This report deals with the feasibility of the use of vocoders as an integral part of a mine electromagnetic voice communication system. Limitations imposed by the nature of the transmission path, background noise and equipment are examined. Some properties of vocoders and apparent advantages of the use of vocoders in a mine communication are discussed. The conclusion is reached that the man-made noise level will ultimately determine the workability of such a system.

Jan 1, 1972

By D. L. Paulson

The Bureau of Mines is investigating pyrometallurgical and chemical methods for extracting copper from sulfide ores under conditions that provide for control of gaseous and solid emissions. Under this program, a new electrothermic reduction process was developed to produce blister copper after collecting essentially all of the sulfur by a single-unit operation. The process feasibility was indicated by a laboratory-scale investigation that demonstrated chalcopyrite concentrate can be roasted to less than 1 percent sulfur and that the resulting calcine can be reduced with carbon to blister copper by a cyclic process in a single arc-smelting furnace. Pilot-scale tests in an 800-kV-A electric-arc furnace demonstrated that 98.4 pct of the contained copper can be continuously recovered as metal by operating at bath temperatures between 1,350° and 1,375° C. Smelting rates of approximately 225 lb of blend ft2 of bath surface/hr resulted in power consumptions of approximately 520 kW-hr/ton of blend. The blister copper that was produced contained less than 0.1 pct iron while the precious metals reporting to the copper product and gangue material elimination were similar to those in a conventional smelting operation.

Jan 1, 1976

By Stephen H. E. Phillips

This report outlines the modifications that have been carried out to the original prototype rectangular shaft sinking equipment for its use in a circular shaft. The surface testing of the machine is described where seven, 24 ft. diameter shafts were excavated to an average depth of 21 ft. at rates ranging between 1 ft/hr and 1.9 ft/hr depending upon the prevailing conditions. The durability and productivity standards for the equipment were established indicating that the objectives of the project had been realized. That is, when using the machine the sinking rates could be increased by 25% and costs reduced by a corresponding amount compared with conventional drill and blast methods. In addition it was shown that the machine had been developed to a state of fitness for sustained underground use.

Jan 1, 1981

By R. L. de Beauchamp

A preliminary investigation was made of the extraction of chromium from ferrochromium by low-temperature chlorination in the 3400 to 5250 C range. The objective was to devise a method for separating chromium from iron in high-carbon ferrochromium produced from domestic chromite concentrates. The majority of iron was removed as a volatile chloride; chromium was contained in the residue as a nonvolatile chloride, which was separated from carbon and unattacked ferrochromium by dissolution. A small rotary chlorination apparatus was designed, built, and used for the chlorination tests, and samples of commercial-grade high-and low-carbon ferrochromiums were chlorinated for comparison of chlorination characteristics. Low-temperature chlorination of three types of ferrochromium resulted in the removal of 81.9 to 91.6 percent of the iron content as sublimed FeC13. Recovery of chromium in a leach solution of the reactor product varied from 82.4 to 93.1 percent.

Jan 1, 1968

By T. M. Ruff

A prototype mucking machine designed to operate in narrow-vein stopes was developed by Foster- Miller, Inc., Waltham, MA, under contract with the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The machine, called a compact loader-trammer, or minimucker, was designed to replace slusher muckers in narrow-vein underground mines. The minimucker is a six-wheel-drive, skid-steered, load-haul-dump (LHD) machine that loads muck at the front with a novel slide-bucket system and ejects it out the rear so that the machine does not have to be turned around. To correct deficiencies of the tether-remote-control system, a computer-based, radio-remote-control system was retrofitted to the minimucker. Initial tests indicated a need to assist the operator in guiding the machine in narrow stopes. An automatic guidance system that used ultrasonic ranging sensors and a wall-following algorithm was installed. Additional tests in a simulated test stope showed that these changes improved the operation of the minimucker. The design and functions of the minimucker and its computer-based, remote-control system are reviewed, and an ultrasonic-sensor-based guidance system is described.

Jan 1, 1992

By W. D. Bensema

Two different techniques were used to make measurements of the absolute value of electromagnetic noise in an operating coal mine, Itmann No. 3 Mine, located near Mullens, West Virginia. The electromagnetic environment created by 250-volt-dc and 550-and 950-volt-ac machinery in two longwall panels was measured and is reported. One technique measures noise over the entire electromagnetic spectrum of interest for brief time periods. It is recorded using broadband analog magnetic tape, and the noise data is later transformed to give spectral plots. The other technique records noise amplitudes at several discrete frequencies for a sufficient amount of time to provide amplitude probability distributions. The specific, measured results are given in a number of spectral plots and amplitude probability distribution plots.

Jan 1, 1974

By McHenry Mosier

The Bureau of Mines, United States Department of the Interior, has established a testing adit on the Government reservation at Mount Weather, Virginia, to facilitate research on the fundamentals of mining under actual metal-mining conditions. A number of sites in several Eastern States were investigated, but Mount Weather was selected because the rock seemed best suited for rock drilling and other mining tests and because the ground was already owned by the Federal Government, the site having been acquired in 1902 for use of the Weather Bureau. The testing adit has an advantage over an active metal mine for certain investigations because variable conditions affecting any particular research problem can be controlled and maintained in a fixed status, whereas in an operating mine this seldom is feasible. Operations were begin in September 1936, with a crew of four laborers under a resident engineer. The laborers were recruited from nearby farms, and although they had no previous mining experience, they have developed into satisfactory miners.

Jan 1, 1939

Reports by researchers in government, industry, and universities of the United States are given for various projects on basic coal research concerning, the metamorphism, physical and chemical properties, and reactions of coal, and how many of these studies can lead to better utilization of coal.

Jan 1, 1968

By Thomas M. Barczak

The era of the shield-supported longwall face began in the United States a little over 25 years ago. The most fundamental development of the shield in the past 25 years has been an increase in size and capacity and a progression toward two-legged designs in favor over four-legged shields. Is the “bigger-the-better” design philosophy justified? The advantage of the two-legged design is largely attributed to its active horizontal force caused by the forward orientation of the leg cylinders. How do we know this? You might be surprised to learn that shield loading data may suggest otherwise. In addition, what about setting pressures? Should they be set as high as possible? Some people have advocated that setting pressures should equal the yield pressure. Does this make any sense? Is yielding a good or bad thing? These are some questions still worthy of investigation that are addressed in this paper. The first major change in gateroad support was the use of cable bolts to replace conventional wood cribbing particularly in Western mines. Standing support changed very little until the mid-1990s, when Strata Products1 introduced the Hercules and Propsetter supports in Eastern mines and Burrell Mining Products introduced the Can support in Western mines. Since then, there has been a dramatic increase in new roof support technologies for longwall gateroad support. Historically, standing support, including shield supports, have been designed based on a simplistic model requiring the support to have sufficient capacity to support the gravity loading of a perceived detached rock mass. This approach ignores the stiffness of the support and the resulting ground deformation that is known to be critical to roof stability. Recently, a new approach based on the ground reaction concept has been promoted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to account for the interaction of the support with the rock mass behavior in achieving ground stability. In addition to gateroad support design, this concept has ramifications for shield capacities, setting pressures, and recovery room support design that challenge current practices in these areas. Although longwall mining has matured into the safest and most productive underground mining method used today, traditional concepts of roof support design and practice should still be evaluated and challenged. Ultimately, advancements in the science of ground control are made by recognizing deficiencies in current theories and thinking outside the box.

By K. E. Robinson

This study is the extension of an investigation of reclamation of floodplain areas in the Coeur d'Alene Mining District, Idaho, that are unuseable in their natural condition, by construction of landfills with mill tailings. The study develops a valley-wide tailings disposal plan to utilize 20 potential landfill sites on floodplain areas and presents measures for reclaiming the sites for subsequent productive use. Field and laboratory testing on a test section and two abandoned impoundments support the use of hydraulically deposited tailings for landfill construction. Hydrological testing has shown that controlled discharge from tailings impoundments results in contaminant levels in the discharge below regulated standards. Additional testing indicated that compacted soil liners and pond management provide adequate contaminant abatement where acid-generating tailings are encountered. Mechanical compaction, including surcharge loading, upgrades foundation support capacity so that construction on the surface of tailings deposits is feasible. On completion of the testing program, the test sections were abandoned and rehabilitated. Details concerning potential landfill sites have been refined. At recent production rates, the 20 sites would result in 680 acres of reclaimed land, while providing a minimum of 40 years of tailings storage capacity. A general design has been developed for the retention dikes. Aspects of embankment stability, including liquefaction are discussed, and are shown to provide an adequate factor of safety under the anticipated range of operating conditions.

Jan 1, 1983

By Richard H. Bares

This report describes the purpose and application of seventeen statistical and mathematical procedures used in a series of studies made in the project ?A Systems Approach to the Reclamation of Strip-Mined Areas in North Dakota". The objective is to help readers better understand the utility of these procedures.

Jan 1, 1982

By John C. Machisak

DATA ON INJURY experience at quarries and related plants of the United States are presented in this publication under the following general sections: A) General injury experience: Tables 1-4: Contain current data on number of injuries, injury-frequency rates, work location, accident agency, degree of injury, and related employment data. (B) Injury experience at different kinds of quarries: Tables 5-6: Current data on number of injuries, injury-frequency rates, work location, accident agency, degree of injury, and related employment data. (C) Injury experience by States: Tables 7-19: Current data on the number of injuries, injury-frequency rates, accident agency, degree of injury, and related employment data. (D) Selected injury data: Tables 20-30: Current data on various selected factors of operating conditions at different kinds of quarries, including employment size-groups, length of shifts, comparative severity of injuries, and injury data and related employment experience at dimension-stone and crushed and broken stone quarries, and underground quarries. (E) Mining methods and historical injury experience: Tables 31-32; Employment data and injury experience in the quarrying industries of the United States, by mining method and work location, 1953-58; and historical injury experience and employment data in the quarrying industry, 1911-58.

Jan 1, 1962

By Richard S. Watt

The Bureau of Mines is often called upon to analyze the demand for various minerals and fuels and to make projections of the future demand. Because minerals and fuels are raw materials and because the demand for raw materials [pends] on the demand for finished goods, these projections are usually [conned] with derived demand rather than final demand. In order to obtain quick [d] reasonably accurate analyses of the demand for mineral commodities, the [reau] developed a method and has used it successfully (31).4 To illustrate the [thod], this report presents a full analysis of the demand for a mineral commodity with enough general theory to permit application of the method to any mineral. Sodium chloride (common table salt) was chosen as the subject of the analysis because the demand for it is less complicated5 and permits a simple application and clear presentation of the method.

Jan 1, 1962