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By C. H. Chou, A. Sauveur

The senior author of this paper has expressed the belief that when gamma iron transforms into alpha iron on reaching the A3 point, each gamma grain does not change bodily into one or more alpha grains but that the alpha phase forms first at the boundaries and along the crystallo-graphic planes of the austenite grains.1 To quote: On cooling through the point As, at about 900° C, iron passes from the gamma condition to a new allotropic form generally designated as alpha. This transformation, however, is not instantaneous. There are good reasons for believing that it begins at the grain boundaries and along the octahedral planes of the crystals and that it progresses until each grain of gamma iron is changed into a grain of alpha iron, the resulting structure being similar to that of gamma iron. Were it possible to retain

Jan 1, 1929

By W. A. Nagel, R. P. Alger, H. Sherman, J. Tittmann

A sidewall epithermal neutron tool has been developed to substantially reduce environmental effects that have previously complicated neutron log interpretation. Designed for operation in uncased wells, the device provides increased accuracy in both liquid-filled and empty holes. A brief discussion of neutron moderation, diffusion and capture shows that logs using epithermal neutron detection depend on a smaller number of formation-characterizing parameters than those using thermal neutron or capture gamma ray detection. Thus, they come closer to providing an unambiguorls determination of hydrogen content. In this new device a directionally sensitive epithertnal neutron detection system has been incorporated in a side-wall source-detector skid to minimize borehole effects. The effects of variations in borehole size and shape, mud type, temperature and salinity are greatly reduced. Small residual borehole effects are then computationally accounted for in the surface control panel to provide a borehole-corrected neutron log. The log presents a direct recording of neutron-derived porosity on a linear scale. With corrections for borehole effects already applied, this direct recording of porosity simplifies log interpretation. Furthermore, comparison with a linear porosity presentation of a formation density log permits sandstones, limestones and dolomites to be readily identified. Thus, in complex or variable lithology, porosity is determined with greater accuracy and reliability than heretofore. Laboratory data and field results demonstrate the improvements in neutron logging afforded by this new side-wall epithermal neutron logging device. INTRODUCTION The new Sidewall Neutron Porosity (SNP) logging system, designed for use in uncased wells, provides reliability and accuracy never before achieved with neutron logs. The effects of variations in borehole diameter and shape, fluid salinity, mud weight and temperature—parameters that have long complicated neutron log interpretation— are suppressed or corrected for by this sidewall epithermal neutron detection system. Furthermore, to simplify interpretation the SNP log presents a direct recording of computed porosity on a linear scale. The performance improvements achieved by this new system arise primarily from the combination of two im- portant design features. First. though not unique to this new tool, an epithermal neutron detection system is used,',' Epithermal neutron detection substantially reduces the perturbing influences of the thermal neutron absorption properties of rock matrices and water salinity. Second, the neutron detection system is mounted in a directionally sensitive sidewall skid to greatly minimize borehole effects. The purpose of this paper is to explain briefy the advantages offered by the detection of epithermal neutrons, to describe the SNP equipment and the log, to present calibration and correction data and to give examples of interpretation methods made especially convenient by this new system. ADVANTAGES OF EPITHERMAL NEUTRON DETECTION Epithermal neutron detection, of all the neutron methods in current commercial use, provides the simplest determination of formation hydrogen content. Advantages of epithermal neutron detectors, as compared with thermal neutron and gamma ray detectors, are probably best explained by a brief review of the life of a source-emitted neutron. A fast neutron from the source will eventually be cap-tured by the nucleus of an atom. However. before capture is likely to occur, the fast neutron (energy of 100,000 electron volts (ev) or more) will be slowed down until it is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. The neutron is then considered to be a "thermal" neutron (average energy of 0.025 ev at 25C). The overwhelming majority of the slowing down thus occurs in reaching epithermal energies (energies just above thermal—0.5 to several ev). After reaching thermal energy. the neutron will "diffuse" through the formation with, on the average, no further energy change until capture. Upon the capture of the thermal neutron, relatively high energy gamma rays arc usually emitted. Hydrogen plays a very important role in the process of slowing down fast neutrons. On the other hand, the absorption effects of water salinity and low concentrations of other strong thermal neutron absorbers—relatively unimportant in the moderation process-—are very important in thermal diffusion, capture and the production of gamma rays. Thus, by detecting only epithermal neutrons with the SNP, spurious effects due to these thermal neutron absorbers are greatly minimized as compared to the effects on tools using thermal neutron or gamma ray detectors. The epithermal neutron detection system affords another important advantage. Log response in various litho-

Jan 1, 1967

By Leonard A. Wood, A. G. Winslow

Subsidence has occurred in several areas of the upper Gulf Coast region of Texas, although in most cases this is not evident without precise instrumental leveling. As referred to in this report, the region com- prises about 7200 sq miles of the Gulf Coastal Plain and includes all or parts of the following counties: Harris, Fort Bend, Waller, Brazoria, Galveston, Liberty, Chambers, Orange, and Jefferson (Fig. 1 ). Topographic relief is low, ranging from sea level at the Gulf of Mexico to 300 ft or more in northwestern Harris County.

Jan 10, 1959

By W. W. Little

At the United Verde mine the 9-2D stope on the 4050 ft level is located within the north sulphide mass lying some 800 ft north of the main sulphide ore body. In 1948 it was estimated that this block contained 85,000 tons of ore at 4% copper and 9.2% zinc. The north ore body is a lenticular replacement deposit in the black schist, extending from about 100 ft above the 3750 level to a distance below the 4500 level yet to be determined. Although the mineralized zone approaches 1000 ft in length, only 300 ft is of economic importance. In width it varies from a maximum of 60 ft to about 3 ft at the north end, and is characterized by pinching and swelling in the ore zone. One of these larger swells is being mined as the 9-2D stope. Mining costs at greater depth, together with the expected grade of ore after dilution, necessitated a low cost mining method to permit profitable stoping operations. Based on the results obtained in a number of Canadian mines, it was decided to develop the ore body for stoping by the Aldermac or bench method of diamond drill blastholes; however, this plan was subsequently changed and the radial or ring method adopted. Such a method seemed to offer the advantage of large tonnages at low cost, and obviate the necessity of waste fill. This latter point was of particular importance, since the present waste system does not extend below the 3000 level.

Jan 4, 1950

By Mark Malamphy

THE occurrence of outcrops of bituminous schists and sandstones impregnated with heavy asphaltic petroleum first directed attention to the Sao Pedro area as a possible source of commercial production of petroleum. Since 1920, more than 20 wells have been drilled in this area. The discovery of oil shows and small quantities of natural gas in some of the early wells led to the continuation of drilling in the hope that more important findings would result. During the early part of 1934, detailed magnetometer observations were made in this area, and a con-siderable number of torsion balance stations were occupied. The results of these geophysical observations help considerably to clarify the structure of the area and the very considerable amount of geologic information available makes possible a much more exact interpretation of geo-physical anomalies. In presenting the results of these observations, and interpretation of the geophysical data, certain actual case problems are included; i.e., geophysical anomalies due to anomalous masses of which the forms and positions are more or less known. Although anomalies due to igneous intrusions are probably more important to geophysicists in Brazil than in other countries, these data have a certain interest for all geophysicists, particularly because they were obtained in the south magnetic hemisphere, where the lines of magnetic force are directed upward, and in a region of moderately low inclination. This is considered as a geological-geophysical problem, and only passing mention will be given to the petroleum possibilities of the area.

Jan 1, 1936

By C. C. Miller, A. B. Dyes

The cost of finding and developing new reserves is continually rising. We must meet these rising costs with more economical operations. This can he accomplished if we revise our ideas of proper well spacing and well allowable to consider the concept of optimum well spacing. According to this concept, the optimum spacing is the one which leads to the maximum present worth for a reservoir when ail factors affecting total cost and total revenue are considered and when the wells are produced in the most eficient manner. Application of this principle efficiently utilizes available well potential and properly considers the recovery eficiency in addition to fixing the spacing on the basis of the amount and value of the oil to he recovered. This Study presents an analysis of one producing zone containing low gravity crude to illustrate the effect of these factors on the present worth and on the optimum economic spacing under two production drives—-evolved gas and water drive. The maximum present worth occurs when the optimum number of wells for open-flow operation is employed. Frequently, this optimum development cal1s for very wide spacing and the ideal field rates are not unreasonable. Under other circumstance. where proration is necessary, an optimum combination of well spacing and well allowable exists which permits production at relatively high rates. The optimum well density in a field depends on the recovery efficiency and the valule of the oil. In solution gas-driven reservoirs this optimum spacing for operation at high producing rates can vary from extremely wide spacing to handle viscous low gravity oil in thin formations to relatively close spacing in thick sands where good recoveries are expected. Because of the better recovery from water-driven fields, the optimum spacing in these fields is closer than in solution gas-driven fields. Also, the water encroachment pattern is dependent upon the well spacing, and an adequate numher of wells is needed to assure a good sweep eficiency. The economic optimum well density in a water-driven field is high enough for this purpose. INTRODUCTION From year to year domestic oil becomes more difficult to find. The fields we do locate are frequently smaller and deeper than older fields and the costs for men, material and equipment are continually rising. To replenish our reserves we must continue to search for and develop new fields, but experience has shown we cannot expect prices to rise in proportion to costs. Consequently, we must meet increasing costs by more economical operations. A vigorous effort is being made within the industry to improve exploration methods, to cope with the problems of deeper drilling, and to obtain a secondary yield from older fields. Many significant contributions have resulted from these efforts. The economic operation of new fields can be further improved by developing these fields on optimum spacing and producing the wells at higher rates. This would avoid the drilling of unnecessary wells and provide additional capital for seeking new oil. While the benefits of these practices are obvious, the problem of defining the optimum development of a field for natural depletion can become very complex. A study of the effect of well spacing and several reservoir variables on economic worth of a specific field is reported here to illustrate the problem and to show the magnitude of the benefits to be realized. This study is necessarily limited to the field conditions selected and is not intended as a general solution of the well spacing problem. It does, however, indicate factors to be considered, the trends to be expected, and the direction in which we should proceed in developing new fields. NO consideration is given to land and legal considerations which might arise. METHOD OF ANALYSIS The optimum method of developing and producing a field is to use the combination of spacing and prora-tion which gives the maximum return. In addition, we do not want to lose recovery. These considerations of maximum return and maximum recovery present no serious conflict. The value of each method of operation is conveniently expressed in terms of its present worth. According to the present worth method of evaluation,' an acceptable annual percentage return is assigned to the operation, and all incomes, capital costs, and expenses are discounted at this rate to the start of the operation. This net value is the present worth. If we apply the same discount rate to several alternate methods of operation, the one yielding the greatest present worth is the best method. If we express net income in terms of price per barrel of oil produced, drilling and equipment costs on a well basis, and expenses as cost per well year, this evalu-

By R. E. Whippo, B. L. Murowchick

The commercially exploited sedimentary apatites exhibit a number of variable lattice substitutions which affect their chemical composition. Carbonate is a major diluent of phosphorus values in sedimentary apatites. Substantial amounts of water as hydroxyl, hydronium, and tetrahedral hydroxyl ions substitute for fluorine and oxygen, calcium, and phosphate, respectively. Calcium is also replaced by several other divalent and monovalent cations. The structural formula demonstrates the substitutions in the lattice of the sedimentary apatites studied in view of the crystal-chemical relationships which have been postulated for the isomorphous apatite series. The lattice constant a. varies from 9.29 to 9.40 A for the apatites studied. Quantitative relationships between this constant and lattice substitution are complicated by the interaction of multiple substitutions whose influence is non-additive. The mineral apatite, the principal raw material source of phosphorus for agricultural and industrial applications, offers a wide area for investigation. Considerable research effort has been expended in the study of apatite crystal-chemistry by medical, biological, and earth scientists. Few of these studies deal directly with the sedimentary apatites from the major occurrences which are widely exploited for commercial uses. It is the purpose here to present chemical analyses of several sedimentary apatites and discuss their chemical composition in relation to the structural and crystalchemical principles which have been postulated for the apatite isomorphous series. THE STRUCTURE OF FLUORAPATITE The atomic structure of fluorapatite was described, independently, by Ngray-Szabd and Mehmel in 1930 and has been accepted as presented, with only minor changes,4 since that time. The hexaogonal unit cell with dimensions of a = 9.37 0.01 A and c = 6.88 0.01 A contains two molecules of the composition "There are six (PO4) groups in the cell, four calcium ions on the trigonal axes, surrounded prismati-cally by six oxygen ions and six calcium ions surrounded by an irregular polyhedron of a fluorine and five oxygens. Fluorines are at the comers of the reflexion planes, touching three calcium ions each".l7

Jan 1, 1968

By Young C. Kim, Francis Martino, Ish Chopra

For the past two and one-half years, various emission control strategies were jointly developed by the University of Arizona and the Homer City Owners to com- ply with the clean air requirements at its Homer City Power Plant. Some of the available options for the SO2 emission control by the Homer City Owners were:l)cleaning of run-of-mine coal,2) scheduling of mining operations at its captive mines, 3) blending the captive mine coal with externally purchased low sulfur coa1,and 4) placing a partial FGD system. This paper describes two specific emission control strategies developed and implemented. These are: 1) production scheduling at the mining face to minimize sulfur variability, and 2) external purchasing of low sulfur coal for further blending. The main objective of this paper is to share our experiences on implementing the developed strategies. This paper emphasizesthe need for proper mine planning on a short-term basis, if the power plant is to meet the desired objective.

Jan 1, 1983

By James Gayley

The development of blast-furnace practice in America in the direction of large yields is mainly the history of our working since the year 1880, as the advancement that has been made in the last decade is greater than that in the third of a century previous. A new era in the manufactnre of pig-iron began in 1880 with the putting in blast of the Edgar Thomson furnaces. These furnaces at once leaped to the front as pig-iron producers, and have maintained that position—with but one brief interruption—ever since. I shall, therefore, confine myself mainly to a description of these works, showing the changes in design and practice by which these results have been achieved. In order to show more clearly the progress that has been made since 1880, I shall refer briefly to the best work that was done in the ten years previous to that time. The Struthers furnace, in Ohio, was one of the first to attract attention in the matter of large outputs. This furnace was 55 feet high, 16 feet in diameter of bosh, 9 feet in the hearth, and about 8 feet 6 inches at the stock-line. The fuel was raw coal. This furnace, in December, 1871, made 1602

Jan 1, 1891

DEVELOPMENT of a chemical process for the extraction of pure metals from mill concentrates or metal scrap has progressed beyond the pilot plant stage and may prove an important adjunct to present smelting and refining methods if initial commercial operations prove economically successful. Developed by the Chemical Construction Corp., the new process involves the treatment of oxide and sulphide ore concentrates by chemical methods, instead of the usual smelting and refining techniques. Several of the many applications are now scheduled for commercial use. Refiners using the new process will prepare ore concentrates by standard flotation methods, introduce the concentrate as a slurry into an autoclave along with water and an acid or ammonia. From the resulting leach solution, recovery of individual metals is made by use of suitable reducing agents. By varying conditions during treatment, different metals in the ore are produced separately as pure powders, which may be pressed into forms ready to market, or in the case of copper, extruded as rods or pipe. The reagents are generally recovered. By manipulating the variables during reduction, selective separation of nickel, and/or cobalt, and/or copper can be made simultaneously. The separation is a continuous operation. Low metal prices are not immediately in view because of the tremendous demand at this time. However, reduced metallurgical treatment costs will allow economical mining of orebodies with lower metal content, permitting increased production to meet demand. Although the practical horizon for use of the new process appears to be limitless, one factor may enter into its employment. Just how low grade a concentrate can be economically used is unknown. In addition, for present practical considerations, only metal below zinc in the electromotive series may be processed. Each commercial application requires specific technique adaptation and pilot-plant data for engineering design. A nickel-cobalt-copper process has been researched and piloted in collaboration with Sherritt Gordon Mines, Ltd., for the firm's Lynn Lake properties. In addition, processes were tailored for cobalt concentrates of Howe Sound Mining Co., and National Lead Co., in view of the urgent need for this specific metal. Major General William N. Porter, president of Chemical Construction, says of the new process, "piloting experience has shown that production cost, from ore concentrates to pure metals should be considerably below current costs." Other savings may be realized by cutting transportation and personnel costs, and by reducing the time lag between mining and pure metal from months to a matter of hours. First commercial use of the process will start sometime this summer. Chemico is slated to finish building a $2.5 million cobalt refinery for Howe Sound Mining near Salt Lake City. The plant is expected to raise world cobalt production by 40 pct. The plant will process 35 tons of 20 pct cobalt concentrates from Howe Sound's Blackbird mine near Cobalt, Idaho, daily. Yearly production is expected to reach 2000 tons of pure metal, about one half of U. S. consumption in 1950. Steps in the Howe Sound application of the process are: 1. Acid oxidation leach. 2. Filtration (residues thrown away are insoluble compounds-gangue, iron, arsenic). 3. Cementation (for Cu removal because Cu content is too low for recovery). 4. Reduction from ammoniacal solution. 5. Separation of Co and Ni as mixed metals (95 pct Co and 5 pct Ni). 6. Recovery of ammonium sulphate. Under construction at the Fredericktown, Mo., mine of National Lead is a $5 million refinery sched- [ ]

Jan 1, 1952

By T. C. King

AT the new Graham-Central Mill of Eagle-Picher, near Galena, Ill., material is simultaneously dewatered and introduced into the ball-mill scoop boxes by the use of variable-speed, 24-in. spiral classifiers. This arrangement has proved satisfactory in that the moisture content of the wet feed is reduced, thus allowing maintenance of density within the mills, and a constant feed at any desired rate to the mills is provided. In this mill the primary feed is wet crushed to minus 1/2 in. and preconcentrated by jigs to produce a bulk lead-zinc-iron concentrate and a waste tailing. The jig concentrate is then dewatered by a conventional dewatering classifier and stored in bins ahead of the ball mills. Even though this material is well dewatered, the discharge at the bin bottom is sloppy because of the gradual drainage of the water from the surface of the particles. Conventional belt feeders with vertical cutoff gates are unsatisfactory because of the flushing characteristic of the wet sand. The new installation employs 24 in. x 10 ft, 9-in. Simplex double-pitch spiral classifiers for feeders from the bin bottoms to the ball mill scoop boxes (fig. 1). These units are arranged with straight tanks and are driven by 5 hp motors through a U. S. Vari-Drive to provide a 4 to 1 speed ratio. Each bin discharges through a chute into the rising side of the spiral. The flushing characteristic of the material from the bottom of the bin is utilized to maintain a steady feed. A small amount of water tapped into the bottom of the bin insures uniform feed to the classifier. Excess clear water drains over the weirs. Feed rate to the mills is controlled by the variable-speed drives. The feed delivered by the spiral at a given speed setting is relatively dry, uniform, and steady, and as such is easily controlled by the operator. The classifiers are set on a pitch of 5 in. per ft and have a sand-raking capacity of from 8 to 32 tons per hr. It is believed that the solution of this problem offers possibilities for the storage of deslimed rod-mill sands and other similar products of the industry.

Jan 1, 1951

By T. C. King

AT the new Graham-Central Mill of Eagle-Picher, near Galena, Ill., material is simultaneously dewatered and introduced into the ball-mill scoop boxes by the use of variable-speed, 24-in. spiral classifiers. This arrangement has proved satisfactory in that the moisture content of the wet feed is reduced, thus allowing maintenance of density within the mills, and a constant feed at any desired rate to the mills is provided. In this mill the primary feed is wet crushed to minus 1/2 in. and preconcentrated by jigs to produce a bulk lead-zinc-iron concentrate and a waste tailing. The jig concentrate is then dewatered by a conventional dewatering classifier and stored in bins ahead of the ball mills. Even though this material is well dewatered, the discharge at the bin bottom is sloppy because of the gradual drainage of the water from the surface of the particles. Conventional belt feeders with vertical cutoff gates are unsatisfactory because of the flushing characteristic of the wet sand. The new installation employs 24 in. x 10 ft, 9-in. Simplex double-pitch spiral classifiers for feeders from the bin bottoms to the ball mill scoop boxes (fig. 1). These units are arranged with straight tanks and are driven by 5 hp motors through a U. S. Vari-Drive to provide a 4 to 1 speed ratio. Each bin discharges through a chute into the rising side of the spiral. The flushing characteristic of the material from the bottom of the bin is utilized to maintain a steady feed. A small amount of water tapped into the bottom of the bin insures uniform feed to the classifier. Excess clear water drains over the weirs. Feed rate to the mills is controlled by the variable-speed drives. The feed delivered by the spiral at a given speed setting is relatively dry, uniform, and steady, and as such is easily controlled by the operator. The classifiers are set on a pitch of 5 in. per ft and have a sand-raking capacity of from 8 to 32 tons per hr. It is believed that the solution of this problem offers possibilities for the storage of deslimed rod-mill sands and other similar products of the industry.

Jan 1, 1951

By W. A. STERLING

IN the opencut iron mines of the Mesabi Range in Minnesota, the trend in mining is in the development of mining equipment and mining methods which will move surface overburden and ore-bearing materials with less labor and at a cheaper cost. This is a must for most of the independent operators. Their reserves of direct-shipping ore are extremely small and their operations are being conducted in small, or intermediate pits, with a high stripping ratio in the outer fringes, or shore lines of older pits. and in ore bodies passing from direct shipping to the washing and the intermediate, or retreat ore state. The trend is toward deeper stripping, longer and steeper hauls, and the necessity of moving a total of from three to five or six tons of overburden and ore material for each ton of shipping-grade ore produced. This naturally calls for greater production, with larger shovels, or draglines. cheaper drilling and blasting costs through the drilling of larger-diameter blastholes, and cheaper haulage through the use of trucks of larger capacity and more extensive use of belt-conveyor systems. This trend is notable both in stripping and mining.

Jan 1, 1948

By Colin G. ink

OUTSTANDI'NG in progress among the less familiar 'metals during 1936 is the electrolytic production of 99.9 per cent manganese meta1 readily and many quantity. Strictly speaking, manganese should not' be classed as 'a rare metal, since there is 800 times as much manganese in the earth's crust as there is zinc or lead. But manganese' as a metal is rare, just as titanium metal is rare though titanium is five times as abundant in the earth's crust as manganese.

Jan 1, 1937

By L. H. Dushak

DURING the war period of quicksilver activity there were a number of departures from what may be termed the classical quicksilver metallurgy. Attempts were made to beneficiate low-grade ores by gravity concentration and flotation; mechanical furnaces began to replace the Scott furnace and the vertical coarse-ore furnaces, and condensers of sewer tile and redwood tanks were used in place of the older brick and stone condensing chambers. Other developments that have occurred during the current period of quicksilver activity are mainly in the nature of improvement and further refinement of those started during the war period. Each period of quicksilver activity has been accompanied by the proposal of various new processes, including wet methods for the treatment of quicksilver ores and innovations in furnaces, retorts and condenser equipment. As far as the author knows, nothing of economic significance in the way of "new processes" has been developed. There is in fact no real need for any essentially new process for the treatment of quicksilver ores; the direct furnace treatment is simple and inexpensive. Moreover, with rare exceptions, the quicksilver industry has no complex or refractory ore problems corresponding to those which are receiving more and more attention from metallurgists in other branches of the nonferrous field. Under these conditions improvements in quicksilver metallurgy must be looked for through the adaptation of current developments in engineering and metallurgy generally to the particular needs of quicksilver practice rather than through the invention of new processes.

Jan 1, 1930

By L. H. Dushak

DURING the war period of quicksilver activity there were a number of departures from what may be termed the classical quicksilver metallurgy. Attempts were made to beneficiate low-grade ores by gravity concentration and flotation; mechanical furnaces began to replace the Scott furnace and the vertical coarse-ore furnaces, and condensers of sewer tile and redwood tanks were used in place of the older brick and stone condensing chambers. Other developments that have occurred during the current period of quicksilver, activity are mainly in the nature of improvement and further refinement of those started during the war period. Each period of quicksilver activity has been accompanied by the proposal of various new processes, including wet methods for the treatment of quicksilver ores and innovations in furnaces, retorts and condenser equipment. As far as the author knows, nothing of economic significance in the way of "new processes" has been developed. There is in fact no real need for any essentially new process for the treatment of quicksilver ores; the direct furnace treatment is simple and inexpensive. Moreover, with fare exceptions, the quicksilver industry has no complex or refractory ore problems corresponding to those which are receiving more and more attention from metallurgists in other branches of the nonferrous field. Under these conditions improvements in quicksilver metallurgy must be looked for through the adaptation of current developments in engineering and metallurgy generally to the particular needs of quicksilver practice rather than through the invention of new processes.

Jan 1, 1930

By M. E. Wadsworth, J. S. Cho

The kinetics of silicate adsorption from aqueous colloidal (SO2 . nH2O) silicate sols on thoria (ThO 2) surfaces were determined at 100, 150 and 200°C in an autoclave system. The amount of chemisorbed silica on the thoria surface was determined by means of infrared spectroscopy. First order kinetics were observed in all cases with the anomalous result that the first order rate constant was found to vary with the initial amount of silica added to the system. These results have been correlated quantitatively by means of a strain model of adsorption involving two types of surface silicate bonding, both of which may be readily observed in the infrared spectrum. Initial adsorption occurs rapidly to produce one type of surface silicate followed by a slow transition to a second type of surface bonding, the latter transition representing the slow step in the adsorption process. Initial interest in silicate adsorption on thoria arose from the dispersive effect silica has on finely divided thoria in aqueous suspensions. Spaepen et al studied the equilibrium adsorption of silica on thoria and noted increased adsorption up to approximately 215°C with a notable decrease in adsorption at temperatures above 215°C. Similar results were observed by Cho and Wadsworth2 who identified two types of surface silica by infrared spectroscopy. At temperatures of 100°C and above, rapid initial adsorption occurred producing a surface species with maximum infrared absorbance at 9.4 After extended periods of time, the 9.4 species converted to a more strongly bonded surface silicate with maximum infrared absorbance at 10.3. The latter was very strongly bonded and difficult to remove by desorption in hot distilled water, while the 9.4 species could be removed more readily by similar treatment. The 9.4 and 10.3-p species were distinguishable from free unadsorbed silica which had maximum infrared absorbance at 9.1 The kinetics of the formation of the strongly chemisorbed silica (10.3) on thoria as determined by infrared examination are presented in this study. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE As a source of silicate, Ludox SM (16.36% SiO2) or Ludox HS (30.25% SO2), DU Pont colloidal silica in aqueous suspensions, was added directly to a thoria slurry made up of one liter of distilled water and one gram of thoria. The thoria used was designated D-16-650 and was received from the Chemical Technology Div. of Union Carbide Nuclear Co. It was prepared by firing thorium oxalate at 650°C. The D-16 thoria had a surface area of 32.4 ± 0.6 sq m per g as determined by nitrogen adsorption.* This thoria 'Determined by Unlon Carbide Nuclear Co., ORNL. had a total adsorption capacity for silicate of approximately 19.4 mg of silica per gram of thoria.1 This amounts to approximately one SiO2 molecule for every surface thoria site. In all cases in this study.

Jan 1, 1963

The Climax Molybdenum Company' s newest operation is the Henderson project, which is located on the east side of the Continental Divide. Ore reserves are estimated at more than 300 million tons at a grade of 0.49% MoS2. For mining the ore a modified panel caving system is used. The ore is transported to the Henderson mill on the west side of the Continental Divide on a 42 in. (1.07 m) gauge railroad through 9.6 miles (15.4 km) of tunnel and 4. 8 miles (7.7 km) of surface track, a total distance of 14.4 miles (23. 2 km). Each train consists of 30 ore cars with capacity of 22 st (20 mt) of ore or 660 st (599 mt) per train. The unmanned trains operate completely automatically. At the 54 in. by 84 in. primary gyratory crusher, the bottom dump ore cars pass over a dump scroll to discharge at a maximum rate of 100 st (91 mt) per minute. Dumped ore falls onto a rock box before passing over a 17 ft long by 46 ft wide (5. 2 m by 14 m) grizzly set at a 40° angle with bar spacings of 7 ½ and 8 ½ in. (191 mm and 216 mm) openings. An estimated 30 to 50% of the ore (which at times is wet and sticky) passes through the grizzly. The operators report that a shallower angle on the grizzly, perhaps 35º to 37º, would have been sufficient and would have prevented impact on the back of the crusher pocket by large boulders. This pocket as well as the crushed ore pocket under the crusher is lined with AR plate. The accompanying drawings show a "future splitter" and the operators are planning the installation of this unit to prevent impact and subsequent damage to the crusher spider. Crushed ore at an 8 to 9 in. (203 mm to 229 mm) size joins the grizzly undersize in the pocket beneath the crusher. This pocket is sized at 660 live st (599 mt) so that it will accept an entire trainload of ore. Crushed ore is removed from the pocket by a four-speed, 84 in. (2. 1 m) apron feeder operating at 9.6 to 29. 3 fpm (2.9 to 8.9 mpm). A 60 in. (1.5 m) takeaway conveyor operating at 480 fpm (146 mpm) delivers the crushed ore to a 58,000 st live and 193,000 st total (52,600 and 175, 100 mt) open stockpile under an A -frame supported tripper gallery. Impact idlers on the takeaway conveyor under the apron feeder discharge are mounted on wood blocks for a cushioning effect and ripped belt detecting bars are located behind each impact idler. The conveyor tunnel is of corrugated and galvanized steel construction rather than concrete. The concrete crusher enclosure is circular in design from its lowest level at elevation minus 110 ft 4 in. (minus 33. 6 m) to elevation

Jan 1, 1978

By William R. Webster

I have continued the investigation of the Pottstown Iron Com pany's basic Bessemer keel plates on the line referred to in my paper of last October (Trans., xxi., 766)) and have added a study of the hardening effects of sulphur, which were not taken into account at that time. The results are so encouraging that I now give them in full. For some months we have graded all the steel at these works by the table given in my former paper, and checked the grading by the forging-tests as described in the paper of Mr. Joseph Hartshorne, read at the same meeting (Trans., xxi., 748). The steel thus graded was bloomed for the plate orders. Then one slab was rolled into a plate for the order, and a tension-test was made of this plate. By the result of this tension-test we were guided in rolling the balance of the heat. Out of several hundred heats graded in this manner, 95 per cent. met the requirements of the orders in every respect, and were accepted; but these results will no doubt be improved upon, when the influence of sulphur is also considered.. The hardening effect of sulphur seems to be about 500 pounds per each .01 per cent. of increase. In the table accompanying the pres ent paper, the ultimate strength with .06.5 per cent. sulphur agrees with the old table where sulphur was not considered; that is, for all steels with less than .065 per cent. sulphur we now get lower re sults, and for those with more sulphur, higher results. Making this allowance for sulphur, the assumed ultimate strength of a 3/8-inch plate of pure iron is reduced from 38,000 pounds per square inch to 34,750 pounds. With this as a basis, I have constructed my new table, giving each of the elements, carbon, phosphorus and manganese the same hardening effect as before, to wit : Carbon is credited with a constant effect of 800 pounds per each, 0.01 per cent. Phosphorus shows greater effect in high-carbon than in low-carbon steels. For 0.07 and 0.08 C, it has about the same effect as carbon, that is, 800 pounds for each .01 P. This increases to 1500 pounds per .01 P in 0.15 C steel, or nearly twice the effect of carbon. This

Jan 1, 1894

By R. W. Shoenberger, J. D. Clendenin, W. L. McMorris, N. Schapiro, B. R. Kuchta, A. A. Terchick, R. J. Gray, J. G. Price

INTRODUCTION * The United States is fortunate in having enormous reserves of metallurgical-grade coals. Although these coals are better in quality and more accessible than most coals found throughout the rest of the world, the best grades of these coals are being depleted. Consequently, more efficient exploration tools and techniques, such as advanced methods of core drilling and logging, correlation by palynology,** stratigraphy, paleontology and petrography are being used to help assess the extent and quality of the remaining coal reserves. Exploration and assessment of new and existing coal properties become of utmost importance in determining (1) the economic justification for mining the coal, (2) the optimum design of the preparation plant and (3) the most effective use of the coal. Fortunately, the cost of mining coal has remained stable because of better mine planning, more efficient operations and increased mechanization of mining operations. However, increased mechanization raises the amount of impurities in the coal mined, and this requires more and better coal beneficiation to meet the more stringent quality requirements set by the market. Besides, mechanical miners also produce relatively fine coal and, to ensure maximum liberation of impurities, much of the coal presently being used must be crushed to a finer size prior to preparation. The bulk of all coals presently used in this country is mechanically cleaned, much of it at a lower specific gravity than in the past. This necessitates the use of new and improved processes and equipment for coal washing and recovery, such as heavy-medium cyclones and vessels, and froth flotation cells. However, because wet-cleaning processes are pre- dominant in the United States and fine coal retains large amounts of moisture, the increased production of cleaned fine coal accentuates the need for new or improved methods and equipment for dewatering and drying this coal. The larger amounts of coal being beneficiated and the use of new and improved beneficiation processes will aid in controlling and ultimately eliminating sources of pollution. Modem coal markets demand coals that meet rigid specifications. Most coals are purchased under contracts that specify moisture, ash, and sulfur contents, or heating value, depending upon the end use. There has also been a growing trend toward specifying other properties, including particle size and coking capability. These specifications may include not only the * Editor's note: Because of the numerous and varied contributions of the associate authors of this chapter, the text does not differentiate between sections prepared by each individual as has been done in other chapters. ** Palynology is the study of plant microfossils, especially spores, pollen, and other types of fossils not usually studied by paleontologists.

Jan 1, 1968