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By L. F. Mondolfo, W. T. Collins

A study of the relationship between undercooling for nucleation and structure in Sn-Cu alloys with 0.1 to 5 pct Cu has shown that in hypereutectic allojls the halo of tin that surrounds the primary crystals of Cu3Sn5 is larger, the larger the undercooling for nucleation o,f the tin. This increase of halo size results in a decrease of coupled eutectic, and, in alloys far from the eulectic composition, may produce its complete disappeavance, with the formation of a divorced eutectic structure. This was confirnred by the excrrnination of other alloys in which divorced eutectic slructuves are formed, and leads to the conclusion that they ave only an extrenle case of halo forrtzalion , which results when the two phases freeze one at a time and solidification of the first is completed Defove the second starts. It was also found that under proper conditions of nucleation all types of eutectic structures can be formed in the sartte system , and therefore divorced eutectics, like normal and anomalous, are not characteristic of the syslett~, but are mainly controlled by nucleatiorz. Dizlovced eutectics are formed when the phase that tutcleates the eulectic vequires a large undevcooling for ils nucleation and when the cotnpositiorz of the alloy is far from the eutectic., on the side of the primary phase that does not nucleate the other phase. It is recommended that the tevm "divorced" be used in preference to degenerate because it is more desct-iptice of the morphology and mode of forinalion of the structures. ThE variety of structures found in eutectic alloys has been extensively investigated and classified. The most accepted classification is the one by ~cheil,' in which three different types of eutectic were distinguished: 1) normal, 2) anomalous, 3) degenerate (divorced). ATornlal eutectics are typified by the simultaneous growth of the two phases ("coupling") by which the two phases appear as interpenetrating crystals. The presence of a crystallization front, in which the two phases grow side by side, creates the eutectic grains, with the boundaries where the fronts meet. The presence of eutectic grains is the .distinguishing feature of a normal eutectic, according to Scheil. Straumanis and Brakss2 examined the Cd-Zn system and showed that there was a crystallographic relationship between the phases. Later, others4 also investigated additional systems and found definite crystallographic relationships in the coupled eutectics. The anornalous eutectic shows much less coupling than the normal; the two phases are intimately mixed but 'grow without a uniform crystallization front—a consistent crystallographic relationship— and the eutectic grain is conspicuously absent. As in the normal eutectics faster rates of growth result in a finer structure, but there is not the typical uniform spacing of normal eutectics. The degenerate eutectic shows no coupling; in fact the two phases attempt to minimize their area of contact and to form separate crystals. It has been suggested5" that slow cooling may favor this type of structure. Scheil believes that normal eutectics are formed when the two solid phases are present in more or less equal proportions, whereas both anomalous and degenerate eutectics form when one of the phases is present only in small amounts. spengler7 extended much farther this qualitative relationship between the eutectic type and the ratio of the two phases, and added a relationship to the melting point of the constituents. On this basis he proposed two equations for determining into which of Scheil's classifications an alloy belongs. The first equation is: where TI is the melting temperature of the lower-melting component, Tp of the higher-melting component, and Te the eutectic temperature. The second equations is: where is the volume percent of the lower-melting phase and $2 of the higher-melting phase at the eutectic composition. If 0 and/or 4 are in the range 0.1 to 1, a normal eutectic is formed; if in the range 0.01 to 0.1, anomalous; if less than 0.01, degenerate. Although the examples given by Spengler show a good agreement with the formulas, chadwick found that the Zn-Sn eutectic is normal to all growth rates, even though the volume ratio is 12/1, and Davies9 reports that the A1-AlgCo2 eutectic is normal, with a volume ratio of more than 30/1. Many more discrepancies of this type can also be found. Neither Scheil nor most of the other investigators have considered nucleation as a factor in the formation of divorced eutectics. Daviesg states that divorced eutectics form when neither phase acts as

Jan 1, 1965

By E. J. Rapperport, E. D. Levine

The boundaries of the (a +ß) field in the Al-Li system were determined between 150°and 550°C utilizing quantitative metallography and lattice-parameter measurements. The solubility of lithium in aluminum decreases from 12.0at. pct Li at 550°C to 5.5 at. pct Li at 150°C. P Al-Li is saturated with aluminum at 45.8 at. pct Li and has this boundary value constant over the temperature range 150°to 550°C. THE solid solubility of lithium in aluminum has been determined by several investigators, 1-6 but, as shown in Fig. 1, there is little agreement among the various determinations. The earliest investiga-tions'-' are suspect because of the use of impure materials. Although high-purity materials were employed in more recent work,4'5 the experimental techniques may have led to contamination of the specimens. Probably the best work has been that of Costas and Marshall,6 who obtained close agreement between results obtained by two independent phase-boundary techniques: electrical resistivity and mi-crohardness. No detailed studies of the solubility of aluminum in the bcc ß phase, Al-Li, have been reported. Cursory investigations1,2,6 have indicated only that the (a+ß) -p boundary lies between 40 and 50 at. pct Li and is relatively independent of temperature. The present work was undertaken in order to provide an independent check on Costas and Marshall's determination of the solubility of lithium in aluminum, to extend knowledge of this solubility limit to temperatures below 225°C, and to make an accurate determination of the solubility of aluminum in Al-Li. EXPEFUMENTAL Alloy Preparation. In view of the difficulties encountered in previous investigations of the A1-Li system, close attention was paid to the use of methods of alloy preparation and treatment that would minimize contamination. Aluminum sheet (99.99 + pct Al) was vacuum-induction melted in a beryllia crucible to remove hydrogen. Lithium (99.9 pct Li) was charged with pre-melted aluminum into a beryllia crucible, in a helium-filled drybox. The crucible was sealed in a Vycor tube and transferred from the drybox to an induction furnace. Melting of alloys was performed by induction heating in a helium atmosphere. Solidification was accomplished by means of a suction apparatus, shown in Fig. 2, in which the alloy was forced by changes of pressure into a 3/16-in. inside diam closed-end beryllia tube. This technique produced rapid solidification of a small portion of the melt, resulting in alloys with a high degree of homogeneity. Typical lithium distributions are presented in Table I. Transverse sections 1/8 in. long were cut from the alloy rods, and each section was split in half longitudinally. One half of each section was analyzed for lithium, and the opposing halves were employed for phase-boundary determinations. Lithium contents were determined by flame photometry with an accuracy of 1 pct of the amount of lithium present. Thermal Treatments. Homogenization and equilibration heat treatments were performed in electrical-resistance furnaces with temperatures controlled to ± 2OC. Calibrated chromel-alumel thermocouples were employed to measure temperature. Homogenization was performed in helium-filled l?yrex tubes for 1 hr at 565°C. The encapsulated specimens were then transferred directly to furnaces maintained at lower temperatures for equilibration. Equilibration times were 2 hr at 550°C, 8 hr at 450°C, 27 hr at 350°c, 90 hr at 250°c, and 285 hr at 150"~. These times were chosen on the basis of conditions employed by previous investigators. Alloys were quenched from the equilibration temperatures by breaking the capsules into a silicone oil bath. By performing all possible operations either in sealed capsules or in a helium-filled drybox, the specimens were given minimum exposure to the atmosphere. Quantitative Metallography. Metallography of Al-Li alloys is difficult because of the atmospheric reactivity of the ß phase. It was found possible, however, to prepare surfaces of good metallographic quality by preventing contact with moisture during preparation. Grinding through 4/0 paper was performed in the drybox. The specimens were then transferred under kerosene to the polishing wheel. Three polishing stages were employed: 25-p alundum with kerosene lubricant on billiard cloth, 1-µ diamond paste on Microcloth, and 1/4-p diamond paste on Microcloth. Between stages the samples were cleaned by rinsing in trichloroethylene and buffing

Jan 1, 1963

By W. S. Reid

In March, 1938, E. P. Fleming, metallurgist for the American Smelting and Refining Co. inaugurated an investigation into the possibilities of recirculating the gases from Dwight-Lloyd sintering machines operating on lead charge, with the twofold object of concentration of the SO2 content and reduction in volume of total gas produced. The possibility of recovering a commercial grade of SO2 gas from D & L machines operating on lead charge had previously been considered by several investigators. Early History of Recirculation The Selby Smelter Commission Report, published by the Bureau of Mines in 1914, contains a chapter by A. E. Wells regarding results obtained at Selby, wherein some of the richer gas was recirculated through a hood over the pallets. Oldright and Miller of the U. S. Bureau of Mines had also made tests at Trail, B.C., and at Kellogg, Idaho. R. C. Rutherford, while at the Chihuahua, Mexico, Smelter of the American Smelting and Refining Co., in May, 1937, proposed recirculation of D & L gases to decrease the volume of gas handled by the baghouse. At none of these plants, however, was the operation commercialized. In July, 1938, Mr. Fleming, in correspondence with the Selby Plant, inquired regarding the possibility of obtaining 6 pct SO2 gas from the Selby D & L machines. At that time, the writer advised that there was slight possibility of obtaining 6 pct SO2 gas without re- circulation, but believed that it was possible with recirculation, and that experimental work toward that end should be tried at some plant where spare D & L machines were available. The foregoing statement was based on the following information then available— 1. Tests on Selby first-over machines showed 2.28 pct SO2 from first windbox and 1.03 pct SO2 from second windbox, and corresponding figures for second-over charge of 0.81 pct SO2 for first windbox and 0.08 pct SO2 for second windbox. 2. Oldright and Miller (US. Bureau of Mines) in 1932 at Bunker Hill, on 42 in. X 22 ft machines found: a. First-over charge—Maximum SO2 concentration (leaving cake) of 9.5 pct. b. First-over charge—SO2 concentration of over 8 pct from the 4 ft to the 12 ft points beyond the front dead-plate and that the concentration then dropped rapidly. c. That approximately 80 pct of the total sulphur eliminated on the second-over machines occurred during the travel of the pallets from the 1 ft to the 6 ft distances from the dead-plate. d. That approximately 94 pct of the total sulphur eliminated on the second-over machines occurred over the first windox. 3. Oldright and Miller (US. Bureau of Mines) in 1932, at Trail, on 42 in. X 50 ft machines found: a. First-over charge—SO2 varied from 2.0 pct to 5.5 pct (leaving cake) from the 12 ft to 28 ft points from the deadplate. b. That the average SO2 increased from 1.0 pct at 7 ft from dead-plate to maximum of 3.3 pct at 20 ft, then dropped to 1.5 pct at 40 ft. c. That on a 22 ft, second-over machine with an 11 in. bed the SO2 varied from 4.5 pct to 6.5 pct from the 2 ft to the 8 ft points from the dead-plate. d. That on the final roast, the SO2 concentration also varied across the pallets; that is, 2 1/2 pct at the side, increasing to 6.0 pct, 5 in. in, and to 7.0 pct at 10 in. to 20 in. in, then decreased vice versa at the opposite side. e. Concluded that most of the sulphur on a 22 ft machine was removed over the first 7 ft of the first windbox; therefore, they partitioned the first windbox so that the exit gas from the second 4 ft section was returned to the surface of the pallets over the fist 7 ft section, and during a seven-day trial the gas from the 4 ft section averaged 2.4 pct SO2, while the recirculated gas from the first 7 ft section only increased to 3.8 pct SO2. (Excess suction over the 7 ft section to prevent escape of SO2 laden gas from the 4 ft section caused dilution by air.)

Jan 1, 1950

By F. V. Lene, E. J. Westerman

The recrystallization behaviors of two extruded and cold-drawn experimental sintered aluminum powder alloys, containing 1.75 and 3.0 pct Al2O3 by weight, were compared with that of extruded and cold-drawn commercially pure alumirzum. The kinetics of recrystallization of the alloys are described semiquantitatively. For the alloy containing 1.75 pct A l203 the rates of nucleation and of growth were also semiquantitatively determined. THE most striking property of aluminum alloys strengthened by a dispersion of Al2O3, the so-called SAP alloys, is their stability at elevated temperatures. One of the manifestations of this stability is their resistance to recrystallization after they have been cold worked. Most of the commercial grades of either the Swiss SAP or of Alcoa's Aluminum Powder Metallurgy Products have not been recrys-tallized after cold working, even when they are heated for a long time at a temperature near the aluminum melting point. Lenel, however, observed that the dispersion strengthened aluminum alloys with a larger spacing between the oxide particles than that of most commercial grades would recrys-tallize.1 It appeared to be of interest to further investigate the mode and kinetics of recrystallization of these alloys, and to compare their recrystallization behavior with that of commercially pure aluminum. Because homogeneous deformation of these SAP alloys in tension did not provide sufficient cold work to induce recrystallization, they were cold worked by wire drawing; the nonuniformity of this deformation unavoidably complicated the interpretation of the recrystallization studies. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS Extrusions—Two types of sintered aluminum powder extrusions were used in this study. One type, designated AT-400, was produced from Reynolds atomized aluminum powder consisting of spherical particles averaging 3µ in diam and containing 1.75 wt pct of Al2O3. This powder was very similar to the R3M powder from which extrusions were previously prepared with an average spacing of 0.9µ between oxide particles.2 The second type, designated MD 2100, was produced from Metals Disintegrating Co. flake powder containing 3.0 wt pct of Al2O3, with an average flake thickness of 0.8µ. The average spacing between oxide platelets in MD 2100 extru- sions was 0.45µ.2 Powder compacts of 3/4-in. diam were extruded at 1000°F into 0.097-in. diam (AT-400) and 0.093-in. diam (MD 2100) wires by methods previously described.3 In order to compare the recrystallization behavior of sintered aluminum powder extrusions with that of wrought commercially pure aluminum 3/4 in. rod stock of 1100 F aluminum was extruded at 1000°F into 0.102-in. diam wire. Wire Drawing—Tungsten carbide dies were used for the AT-400 and 1100 F alloys. They had an included angle of about 15 deg and reduced the wire area approximately 7 pct per pass. Steel dies with an included angle of 11 to 13 deg and an average reduction per pass of 10 pct were used for drawing the MD 2100 alloy, because drawing this alloy through the carbide dies produced overdrawing defects. Heat Treatment—The cold-drawn wires were cut into small samples, and the deformed ends were etched off. The samples were each wrapped tightly in a single layer of aluminum foil, and individually isothermally annealed in a lead bath. Metallography—The modes and kinetics of recrystallization were determined by metallography. Mounted and polished specimens were anodized in a solution of 1.8 pct HBF4;4 examination under polarized light clearly revealed their grain structures. The recrystallized grains were generally much larger than those of the unrecrystallized matrix, and could clearly be distinguished because they alternated between maximum and minimum light reflection when the microscope stage was rotated, while the unrecrystallized matrix had a comparatively homogeneous "salt and pepper" structure. The fractional recrystallized volumes of the dispersion hardened alloy wires were determined by cutting and weighing of recrystallized and total transverse areas on photomicrographs. The recrystallized grains in the 1100 F alloy were too small to be cut out individually; therefore a combination of cutting and lineal analysis was used in this case. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Modes of Recrystallization—The modes of recrystallization of the three alloys varied widely. In the 1100 F alloy nucleation and growth started in the region midway between the center and the surface;

Jan 1, 1961

By WILLIAM WATERS

L HISTORY. THE Pierrefitte mines, situated in the South of France, in the district of the Hautes-Pyrenees, owe their name to the fact that the first mining operations of any extent, and of comparatively recent date, were carried out in the neighborhood of the vil¬lage of Pierrefitte, which is a branch terminus of the Midi railway. The Pierrefitte mines, however, embrace a wide extent of country and several different concessions, on most of which comparatively little exploration-work has been done. The portion of the property presently to be described is a zone running roughly E-W., over a distance of about 5 miles from the valley of Cauterets to the valley of Estaing, the ridge dividing these valleys being a spur of the main chain of the Pyrenees, and running more or less at right angles to it. According to local tradition, which various indications tend to confirm, these mines are of ancient date, the first workings being attributed to the Romans, who are supposed to have sought not only the lead but also the silver which is contained in the ore. Old slags have been found in the neighborhood which might well have been produced from the cupellation of lead-ores. These old workings, while of considerable extent at times, do not seem to have extended beyond a depth of 100 ft., even this depth being somewhat exceptional. The old notarial records of the district show that mines were known to exist, and that they were even worked, in the sixteenth century, but since the mines were abandoned (by the Romans or others) considerably prior to this period, very little

Nov 1, 1908

By O. C. Baptist

The Umiat oil field is in Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 between the Brooks Range and Arctic Ocean in far-northern Alaska. The Umiat anticline has been tested by 11 wells, six of which produced oil ; however, [lie productive capacity and recoverable reserves of the field are subject to considerable speculation because of unusual reservoir conditions and because several wells appear to have been .seriously damaged during drilling and completion. Oil is produced at depths of 275 to 1,100 ft; the depth to the bottom of the permanently frozen zone varies from about 800 to 1,100 ft, .so that most of the oil reserves are in the permafrost Reservoir pressures are estimated to range from 50 to 350 psi, increasing with depth, and the small amount of gas dissolved in the oil is the major source of energy for production. Laboratory tests were made on cores under simulated permafrost conditions to estimate oil recoverable by solution-gas expansion from low saturation pressures. The cores were also tested for clay content and susceptibility to productivity impaiment by swelling clays and increased water. content if exposed to fresh water. The results indicate that oil can be produced fronz reservoir rocks in the permafrost and that substantial amounts of oil can be produced from depletion-drive reservoirs by a pre.s.r~lrr drop of as little as 100 psi below the saturation pressure. Freezing of formation water reduces oil productivity much more than that due to increased oil viscosity: Failure of we1ls drilled with rtuter-base mud to produce is attributed to freezing of water in the urea immediately surrounding the wellbore. Swelling clays apparently contributed very little to the plugging of the wells. INTRODUCTION Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 lies between the Brooks Range and the Arctic Ocean in northern Alaska. The Umiat oil field is located in the southeastern part of the Reserve and is about 180 miles southeast of Point Barrow (the only permanent settlement in the Reserve and the primary supply point for drilling of the wells at Umiat). Eleven wells were drilled for the U. S. Department of the Navy, Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves, between 1944 and 1953 to test the oil and gas possibilities of the Umiat anticline. Six of these wells produced oil in varying quantities and the best one pumped about 400 B/D.' Estimates of recoverable oil range from 30 to 100 million bbl. The main oil-producing zones are two marine sandstone beds in the Grandstand formation of Cretaceous age: these are referred to as the upper and lower sands. Good oil shows were found throughout the sand settions in the first three wells drilled on the structure, but the highest rate of oil production obtained on any 01 the many tests was about 24 BOPD. These first wells were drilled with conventional rotary methods using water-base mud; later wells were drilled either with cablc tools using brine or rotary tools using oil or oil-base mud. These experiments were successful as is shown by comparing the oil production from Well No. 2 with that from No. 5. These two wells are only 200 ft apart and are located at about the same elevation on the structure. Well No. 2. drilled with a rotary rig using water-base mud, was abandoned as a dry hole after all formation tests were negative. Well No. 5. drilled with cable tools and reamed with a rotary using oil, pumped 400 BOPD which was the maximum capacity of the pump and less than the capacity of the well. These field results indicated that the producing sands were extremely "water sensitive" and it was assumed that the cause of this sensitivity was the presence of swelling clays in the sands. Because of the very unusual reservoir conditions and the difficulties encountered in completing oil wells in the permafrost. the Navy asked the U. S. Bureau of Mines to make laboratory studies under simulated permafrost conditions to assist them in estimating the production potential of the field and the recoverable reserves. These tests were designed to determine the cause of the plugging of wells in the permafrost and to test oil recovery from frozen sand by solution-gas expansion with the oil gas-saturated at very low pressures. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND PROCEDURES Samples Analyzed Core samples were analyzed that represent the lower sand in Umiat Well No. 7, the upper sand in No. 3. and both the upper and lower sands in No. 9. These sands should be productive in all of the wells because of their location on the structure. Core samples from

The present paper records a chapter in the history of the development of an electrolytic manganese industry in the United States.l A relatively large pilot plant at Boulder City, Nev., for the production of electrolytic manganese was conceived as part of the national defense program to make this country independent of foreign importation of manganese ore. The first authorization, in November 1940, however, was for a plant of only several hundred pounds capacity. Improvements in process and subsequent additions to some sections authorized by subsequent appropriations have enabled the plant to produce as much as 2000 lb. of manganese a day for substantial periods of time. Since in pilot-plant operation frequent changes are made in the flowsheet, the electrolytic manganese plant was constructed so that equipment could be rearranged with a minimum of expense and time. Several different kinds of the various ¦ types of equipment were installed for many of the operations, so that the one most suitable for the process might be chosen. Pilot-plant operations were begun in November 1941 and have been continuous except for brief shutdowns for installation of new equipment. More than one-half million pounds of manganese have been produced. The improvements in process, selection of equipment, and operational procedure developed are recorded here. Development of the Process The work of early investigators on the electrolysis of manganese solutions has been reviewed by Shelton. Until the method of continuous production of manganese by electrolysis was perfected by SheltonZm4 and coworkers, no practical procedure had been devised. The method as originally developed by the Bureau of Mines will be described here only briefly. The manganese dioxide ore was reduced in a rotating kiln-type furnace at 650°C. in an atmosphere of "city" gas. The calcine was leached with spent electrolyte and enough sulphuric acid to produce a neutral leach solutioil containing 2 5 grams manganese per liter as manganese sulphate and zoo grams per liter of ammonium sulphate. Arsenic was removed from the solution by the addition of 0.0j gram iron per liter as ferrous sulphate followed by oxidation with manganese dioxide, and aeration, which precipitated the iron as ferric hydroxide. The solution, free from iron

Jan 1, 1944

By Thomas Cox

This paper makes no claim to any new idea; it simply reviews the Treasury Department Regulations pertaining to the practical application of depreciation and depletion and other allowances governing taxation of oil and gas properties. Other methods may be existent, but as they may not conform to the legal status they must be discarded. In complying with the present laws governing the industry with regard to taxation and the allowable deductions therefrom, the following considerations are essential: Depletion, depreciation, amortization, other allowances, and items not, deductible. It is definitely understood that depletion is the loss or exhaustion sustained in the continuous operating of an oil and gas property, and that each unit of oil or gas taken out reduces the value of the property until its final exhaustion. Depletion applies only to the natural deposits of oil and gas due to their removal in the course of exploitation of any property. Depreciation is defined to cover the waste of assets due to exhaustion, wear and tear, and obsolescence of the physical property, and is separate and distinct from depletion; its allowance is that amount which should be set aside for the taxable year in such sums as for the useful life of the property will suffice to repay its original cost—or its value as of Mar. 1, 1913, if acquired by the taxpayer before that date—less the salvage value at the end of such useful life. Amortization is allowed for such facilities as were built or acquired on or after Apr. 6, 1917, for the production of articles contributing to the prosecution of the war and, in the case of vessels, those built and acquired after that date. The amount to be extinguished, in general, is the excess of the unextinguished or unrecovered cost of the property over its maximum value under stable post-war conditions. Claims for amortization must be unmistakably differentiated in the returns from all other claims of depreciation. The taxpayer is also required to furnish full information with the claims for amortization to the full satisfaction of the Commissioner. Further reference is directed to the specific rules and regulations for making these claims.

Jan 1, 1921

By Theodore A. Blake

More than a quarter of a century has passed since the introduction of the machine known as the Blake crusher, the invention of Eli W. Blake, of New Haven, Conn. Although originally designed for breaking stone for road-metal, its importance for crushing ores of the precious metals, and those of iron, copper, and zinc, as well as emery, phosphates, plaster, etc., mas soon recognized, and for many years its use has been world-wide, and its construction so well known that no special description of it is deemed necessary. Following its introduction, many different machines for the same purpose, containing the same essential features of upright convergent jaws, one of which is movable with respect to the other, hut having some slight modification of such movement (generally a rubbing motion) or of the non-essential method of imparting motion to one or both of the jaws, have been offered to the public for sale and use, but have, as a rule, in time disappeared from the market. If we seek for the reason of the success of the Blake crusher, aside from its simplicity of construction, we shall find it in the adherence to the principle of crushing by simple pressure and careful avoidance of attrition. In this lies the economy of power and of wearingsurfaces. To reduce any hard and brittle material to a fine powder by many different methods—by attrition, impact, or percussion—is a comparatively easy matter; but to accomplish this by the employment of either of the above-mentioned principles involves such a consumption of wearing-surface? (generally iron) or of power, that the numerous devices that have hitherto been presented to the public as solutions of the problem of fine crushing have proved utter and complete failures when tested with reference to the power employed and the wear of iron in doing their work.. Aside from the use of crushers with the harder ores, the only two methods of fine crushing in general use, and, in the writer's opinion, worthy of consideration, are by means of stamps and rolls; the former doing their work by percussion, the latter by pressure, provided

Jan 1, 1885

By Howard S. Bryant

The state of Kansas in 1931 continued to hold fourth place on the list of oil-producing states, despite the fact that low prices for crude oil curtailed drilling to just one-half the amount done in 1930, which itself was the lowest in the preceding 10 years. The estimated crude oil production for 1931, according to sources available to the writer, will approximate 37,037,000 bbl., the lowest since 1925. Thus Kansas produced one-eighth less oil this year than it did last year when it produced 42,729,085 barrels. This year's development was characterized by a very small amount of wildcat drilling; however, large new areas were semiproven for oil production, and several thousands of acres were added to the actually proved areas in western Kansas, so that the state now has larger proven areas of oil reserves than at any time in its history since the heyday of the famous El Dorado pool. The general prospects for oil production in the near future are indeed promising for central western Kansas, where drilling costs are moderate and depths are relatively shallow compared to the remaining unexplored parts of the northern Mid-Continent area. Probably the greatest singular achievement in the state for 1931 was the development of its natural gas reserves. This development took place principally in two spots, McPherson County in central Kansas, and Stevens and Morton counties in southwestern Kansas, and it is a matter of record that more than one and one-half billion cubic feet of open-flow capacity per day were added to reserves, nearly twice the amount developed in 1930, previously the largest amount in the history of gas development in Kansas. Gas pipe lines already built and now building are in position to deliver natural gas by one system to Chicago, Ill., by another to Indianapolis, Ind., from whence lines already lead practically to the Atlantic seaboard, and to other cities large and small located west, northwest, north and northeast of Kansas. Table 2 shows all well completions for 1931 in a form to compare with the results of previous years.

Jan 1, 1932

By Carl E. Swartz

ALTHOUGH a number of articles appeared during the war advocating the use of cadmium in lead-tin solders, very little information of value can be found in the literature regarding the properties of solders containing cadmium. In most of the published articles the cadmium seems to have been considered merely as a partial substitute for tin in a tin-lead alloy rather than as an essential constituent of a ternary alloy. The primary object of the substitution of cadmium for tin was to lessen the amount of tin required, at a time when the latter was scarce and high-priced, and thus to produce a cheaper solder. While this object was accomplished, the new properties resulting from a change from a binary lead-tin alloy to a ternary lead-tin-cadmium alloy were not given proper consideration in many cases. For the past few years, the American Smelting & Refining Co. has been marketing a very considerable amount of cadmium in the form of lead-tin-cadmium alloys for use as solders for certain special purposes, and the successful use of these solders suggested that if more extensive knowledge were available concerning the properties of lead-tin-cadmium alloys of various compositions their field of usefulness might be materially extended. The investigation described in the present paper was undertaken to obtain this information and, by means of tests under conditions approaching those of practical use, to determine the suitability of cadmium solders for various purposes. CHARACTERISTICS AND REQUIREMENTS OF SOLDERS IN GENERAL General Physical Properties.-When cast into bars, solder should present a smooth and bright appearance free from oxide inclusions and bubbles. Ductility should be as great as possible without sacrificing tensile strength, and vice versa. Hardness and specific gravity are not of any great importance. Melting Characteristics.-The melting or solidification range is important. This statement applies both to the extent of the range and to the actual temperature at which complete solidification occurs. A rather narrow solidification range is desirable in soft solders in order that solidification may take place quickly. The solder should have high fluidity at temperatures only slightly above its melting range. For a

Jan 1, 1928

In our sessions devoted to geophysical prospecting, the greater part of the time heretofore has been given to the presentation of theoretical subjects or highly technical details by specialists directly engaged in the development and perfection of the various methods. This was necessarily so, for we wanted such information available for the benefit of other workers and for our members who were anxious to gain a reliable understanding of the principles involved, to enable them to form an opinion of the adaptability of this new technique to their special problems. The methods have now been actively applied by many reliable organizations for several years and in this period there has been opportunity for operating mining men, engineers and geologists to appraise them. We therefore felt that it would be desirable at this meeting to give some time to interchange of opinion concerning results from actual cases. Consequently, the Committee on Geophysical Methods of Pros pecting sent out letters of inquiry to numerous mining people, asking for frank statements of opinion based on results from geophysical surveys at their properties. We have received many replies, among which 30 or more are of specific interest. On the whole, the point of view is remarkably uniform. Except for one or two who were, perhaps, a bit irritated, the operating men who have replied consider the methods to be capable of yielding valuable information when suitable conditions exist. Their attitude is definitely one of tolerance and of confidence in the integrity and sincerity of the outstanding workers. There is, however, a very general feeling that the chances of attaining positive and trustworthy results are small unless the work is directed by, or at least carried on with the close cooperation of, a geologist or mining man who is thoroughly familiar with the local geologic and mineralogic conditions and with the relations of the orebodies to rocks and structure. From certain comments, I am inclined to think that some operators are not greatly impressed with the cheapness of the work. Probably they are not attaching much weight to cost per acre, but are thinking primarily of total cost in terms of significant results obtained. It is

Jan 1, 1932

By B. D. Cullity, K. S. Sree Harsha

When a copper or aluminum single crystal is swaged into wire, the resulting deformation texture depends on the original orientation of the crystal. The<100> and <111>orientations me essentially stable, while <110> is unstable. The greater the <100> content of the deformation texture, the stronger the wire is in torsion. the greater the<111>content, the stvonger it is in tenszotz. The preferred orientation (texture) of fcc wires, either after deformation or recrystallization, is usually a double fiber texture in which some grains have <100> parallel to the wire axis and others have <111>. The relative amounts of these two texture components, as reported by different investigators for the same metal, vary considerably. Previous work in this laboratory&apos; has shown that the starting texture of a wire, i.e., the texture which it has before deformation, can have a decided influence on the texture produced by deformation. In particular, it was found that the deformation texture of copper wire is essentially a single <100> texture, if the wire before deformation contains only a <100> component. This is true even when the deformation is carried to more than 98 pct reduction in area. This paper reports on further studies of the role played by the starting texture. Copper and aluminum single crystals of various orientations have been cold swaged into wire, and quantitative measurements of the resulting deformation textures have been made. The tensile and torsional properties of the deformed wires have also been measured, and the relation between these properties has been correlated with the texture of the wire. These measurements were made in order to demonstrate that a cold-worked wire can be made relatively strong in torsion and weak in tension, or vice versa, by proper selection of the texture before deformation. MATERIALS The copper was of the tough-pitch variety, containing, by weight, 99.962 pct Cu, 0.003 pct Fe, 0.025 pct 0, and 0.0021 pct Si. The aluminum contained more than 99.99 pct .&apos;41; the only reported impurities were 0.001 pct Fe, 0.001 pct Si, and 0.003 pct Zn, by weight. Large single crystals of these metals were grown by the Bridgman method in graphite crucibles and a helium atmospliere. Cylindrical specimens of predetermined orientation, about 1.5 in. long and 0.36 in. in diameter, were machined from the as-grown crystals and then etched to 0.25 in. to remove the effects of machining. Their orientations were checked by back-reflection Laue photographs, and they were then swaged to a diameter of 0.050 in. (96 pct reduction in area). 111 order to study the "inside texture" of the deformed wires, they were etched, after swaging, to a diameter of 0.040 in. before the texture measurements were made. TEXTURE MEASUREMENTS The fiber texture which exists in wire or rod can be represented by a curve showing the relation between the pole density I, for some selected crystal-lographic plane, and the angle $ between the pole of that plane and the wire axis (fiber axis). Such a curve will show maxima at particular values of , and these values disclose the texture components which are present. The relative amounts of these components can be determined2&apos;3 from the areas under the maxima on a curve of I sin F vs F. It is seldom necesszlry to measure I over the whole range of F from 0 to 90 deg, since the existence of maxima in the low-F relgion can be inferred from measurements confined to the high-F region. The X-ray measurements were made with a General Electric XRD-5 diffractometer and filtered copper radiation, according to one or the other of the following procedures: 1) A method developed in this laboratory,4 involving diffraction from a single piece of wire. 2) A modification of the Field and Merchant method.5 This method was originally devised for the examination of sheet specimens, but it can easily be adapted to the measurement of fiber texture. Three or four short lengths of wire are held in grooves machined in the flat face of a special lucite specimen holder. The axes of the wires are parallel to the plane defined by the incident and diffracted X-ray beams, and the holder to which the wires are attached can be rotated step-wise about the diffractometer axis for measurements at various angles 9.

Jan 1, 1962

By Jr. F. M. Perkins.

Capillary forces play a controlling role in water-drive displacement processes both in laboratory experiments and in actual reservoirs, but their quantitative importance may be quite different in the two cases. Because of the importance of conducting laboratory experiments which are representative of field conditions, it is necessary to understand exactly the role of capillary forces in the displacement process. Though a number of experimental investigations related to this subject are contained in the literature, there appears to be a lack of information pertaining to unsteady-state experiments in water-wet media. This experimental study was conducted to obtain additional laboratory data to clarify further the role of capillary forces in both the macroscopic and microscopic flow of oil and water in porous materials. THEORETICAL CONSlDERATlONS The capillary pressure is defined as the difference in pressure between a continuous oil phase and a continuous water phase in a porous material.&apos; The magnitude of this pressure difference depends on the interfacial curvature and the interfacial tension. The interfacial curvature is determined by the geometry of the pore spaces, the wettability of the rock surfaces, and the quantity of cach phase present. Capillary forces are involved in a water-drive displacement process in that they exert a controlling influence on the microscopic fluid distribution which in turn is reflected in the saturation or macroscopic flow behavior. Microscopic Fluid Distribution Because of the microscopic nature of the displacement of oil by water, it is necessary to consider the flow and the fluid distribution in individual pores. On this microscopic scale the capillary Forces, which act over a distance of one or two sand grain diameters, control the distribution of oil and water under static equilibrium conditions. When an external force is applied to the fluids, such as in a water-injection experiment, the applied forces tend to distort the oil-water interfaces. However, in most fine-grained, water-wet sands, the applied pressure difference across one or two grain diameters is usually several orders of magnitude less than the capillary pressure difference. These con-siderations lead to the theory&apos; that even during flow the capillary forces continue to control the microscopic distribution of oil and water within the pores of a porous material for all practical reservoir and laboratory flow rates. This concept of capillary forces controlling the microscopic distribution of fluids has been substantially verified by other investigators3-7 who have found a lack of dependence of relative permeability and residual oil saturation on rate of fluid injection. Macroscopic Distribution The microscopic influence of capillary forces cannot be observed easily and only the effect on the macroscopic or average saturation can be detected. The saturation, of course, is really the point of interest. During a water flood, large differences in saturation at the flood front cause large capillary pressure gradients. This, in turn, causes water to advance ahead of the flood front thereby reducing the capillary pressure gradient in this region. The result is that in homogeneous porous media capillary pressure gradients tend to cause a diffuse displacement front. At low rates in laboratory columns, the front may extend over the entire column length. When the advancing water first reaches the outflow face of a core, the water, which is the wetting phase, cannot be produced because the pressure in the water just inside the core is lower than the pressure in the oil-filled space around the outflow face. This difference in pressure is equal to the capillary pressure for the water saturation existing at the outflow face. Water, therefore, accumulates at the outflow end of the core which causes a reduction in the capillary pressure. Because the capillary pressure does not vanish except at the residual oil saturation,7,8,9 water will not be produced until the residual oil saturation exists at the outflow face. This entire effect,"&apos; which is called the "boundary effect", results in a region of relatively high water saturation near the outflow face. At low rates of injection in a short column, this region of high water saturation may extend over a considerable portion of the column. The influence of capillary forces on the macroscopic flow of oil and water have been described by Leverett.10 For unidirectional, viscous flow in the absence of gravity segregation, the expression in dimensionless form for the fraction of water in the flowing stream, f, is

Jan 1, 1958

By William H. Baer, George M. Carlton, Blake M. Loring

IT is a well known fact that age-hardening alloys remain in a supersaturated, or partially supersaturated, condition only for limited periods of time at temperatures below the solvus. In order to develop optimum properties by subjecting the quenched alloy to precipitation or age-hardening treatment at a specified temperature, it is necessary that the cooling rate be sufficiently high to maintain the required degree of supersaturation of the solid solution. In practical applications the size and shape of the specimens obviously have considerable influence on the rate of cooling and there is need for more information on the effects of various rates of cooling. Cooling rates of quenched aluminum alloys generally have been established by the type of quenching medium, the temperature of the medium and the dimensions of the specimen.1,2,3 Except for the work of Roth3 little quantitative information is available on the measurement of cooling rates of aluminum alloys and the significance of the influence of various cooling rates upon the mechanical properties. The purpose of the present investigation was to study the use of the Jominy test for aluminum alloys (Table I). EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The material for this investigation consisted of extruded rods 1 ¼ to 1 ½ in. in diam. The chemical compositions were as follows: [ ] The modified L-type Jominy specimen with dimensions shown in Fig I was selected as the most convenient means for obtaining a wide range of cooling rates. The standard Jominy specimen was not satisfactory because its cooling rate was not sufficiently high. The four flat surfaces machined at right angles along the length of the L-type specimen to a depth of 0-015 in. facilitated the hardness measurements. The specimens were machined from the extruded stock with no intermediate forging. New specimens were used for each aging experiment. The specimens were given solution treatments of 2 hr duration at recommended temperatures in a Hoskins furnace (Table 2). The temperature of the furnace was maintained constant to ±3°C. No protective atmosphere was necessary because the thin film of oxide that formed on the surface of the specimens had no effect on the hardness measurements.

Jan 1, 1948

The Manufacturer&apos;s Viewpoint A prominent manufacturer of mining &apos;machinery not long ago expressed himself as being confident that he was securing the best kind of publicity for his product through the advertising pages of the monthly Bulletin of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. Such an expression coming from such a man is highly gratifying; yet it is justifiable when the high quality of reader and subscriber is taken into consideration. In fact, the majority of those using our advertising pages feel the same. It is to be regretted, of course, that others catering to our field do not realize the means at their disposal for presenting the points of interest of their product to the mining man. The question has been asked, " Do your members read their Bulletin?" They not only read the editorial pages, but they "admit being up-to-date enough to peruse the advertising section to "see what is new." The next question the prospective advertiser asks is, " Will the Bulletin bring inquiries?" The answer to this question holds good for any publication having as subscribers those who have purchasing or recommending power-yes, if the article advertised is not a stock one, that has been before the public for any length of time. To secure inquiries on, say, a standard centrifugal pump or any other standard product, the features of which are well known, is a most difficult proposition. Yet, of course, some inquiries are secured, but mostly from those having use for the catalogue or trade literature for reference purposes. It is safe to say that the traceable returns from advertising in trade publications hardly, if at all, pay for the advertising. The real returns are intangible, and result from the constant publicity, and keeping ?everlastingly at it." Who can say what subconscious effect is taking place when an advertisement is "glanced at," to say nothing of the effect produced when the copy is attractive and interests the reader. Time after time it has been proved that sales have been secured as a result of an advertisement, yet no inquiry had been made directly traceable to advertising.

Jan 8, 1915

By G. R. Brophy, A. J. Miller

The Grossmann principle1 for the calculation of hardenability of steel from composition is attractive because of its simplicity. It postulates that the hardenability of a steel for any particular grain size may be expressed in terms of an ideal critical diameter, which is the product of an ideal critical diameter for a "pure" iron-carbon base multiplied by a succession of factors for each element of composition contained, including the incidentals. It infers that the multiplying factor for a given quantity of an element is constant for all combinations of composition. Gross-mann has stated that in the great majority of cases the experimental values of hardenability are found to be well within 10 per cent of the calculated values. The validity of the scheme has been confirmed in principle by Crafts and Lamont2,3 and by Kramer et al.4 Their results differ from the original in the magnitude of the effect of some elements but, since they accepted the product concept and followed its direction, it is to be ex~ected that similar results would be obtained. Crafts and Lamont, in their second Paper, recognized that the factor relations for manganese and nickel were not continuously linear, but beyond certain critical amounts increase sharply. Austin, Van Note and Prater6 demonstrated nonlinear relations between hardenability and alloy contents. Their curves for chromium, silicon, manganese and nickel were all convex upward to show decreasing incremental effects. They concluded that Grossmann&apos;s factors under-evaluate the hardening effect of low percentage additions of these elements, and overevaluate the larger additions. More recently W. Stevens has found that the factor method fails when applied to complex steels containing two or three principal alloying elements other than carbon. Multiplying factors derived from his results bear a complex relation to composition and are not constant for a given amount of an element as the base composition varies. C. A. Liedholm7 found that, using either the Grossmann or the Crafts-Lamont multiplying factor values, not only were the relative hardenabilities of two heats of S.A.E. 6130 chromium-vanadium steel

Jan 1, 1947

By A. J. Miller, G. R. Brophy

The Grossmann principle1 for the calculation of hardenability of steel from composition is attractive because of its simplicity. It postulates that the hardenability of a steel for any particular grain size may be expressed in terms of an ideal critical diameter, which is the product of an ideal critical diameter for a "pure" iron-carbon base multiplied by a succession of factors for each element of composition contained, including the incidentals. It infers that the multiplying factor for a given quantity of an element is constant for all combinations of composition. Gross-mann has stated that in the great majority of cases the experimental values of hardenability are found to be well within 10 per cent of the calculated values. The validity of the scheme has been confirmed in principle by Crafts and Lamont2,3 and by Kramer et al.4 Their results differ from the original in the magnitude of the effect of some elements but, since they accepted the product concept and followed its direction, it is to be ex~ected that similar results would be obtained. Crafts and Lamont, in their second Paper, recognized that the factor relations for manganese and nickel were not continuously linear, but beyond certain critical amounts increase sharply. Austin, Van Note and Prater6 demonstrated nonlinear relations between hardenability and alloy contents. Their curves for chromium, silicon, manganese and nickel were all convex upward to show decreasing incremental effects. They concluded that Grossmann&apos;s factors under-evaluate the hardening effect of low percentage additions of these elements, and overevaluate the larger additions. More recently W. Stevens has found that the factor method fails when applied to complex steels containing two or three principal alloying elements other than carbon. Multiplying factors derived from his results bear a complex relation to composition and are not constant for a given amount of an element as the base composition varies. C. A. Liedholm7 found that, using either the Grossmann or the Crafts-Lamont multiplying factor values, not only were the relative hardenabilities of two heats of S.A.E. 6130 chromium-vanadium steel

Jan 1, 1947

By B. M. Loring, W. H. Baer, G. M. Carlton

It is a well known fact that age-hardening alloys remain in a supersaturated, or partially supersaturated, condition only for limited periods of time at temperatures below the solvus. In order to develop optimum properties by subjecting the quenched alloy to precipitation or age-hardening treatment at a specified temperature, it is necessary that the cooling rate be sufficiently high to maintain the required degree of supersaturation of the solid solution. In practical applications the size and shape of the specimens obviously have considerable influence on the rate of cooling and there is need for more information on the effects of various rates of cooling. Cooling rates of quenched aluminum alloys generally have been established by the type of quenching medium, the temperature of the medium and the dimensions of the specimen. Except for the work of Roth3 little quantitative information is available on the measurement of cooling rates of aluminum alloys and the significance of the influence of various cooling rates upon the mechanical properties. The purpose of the present investigation was to study the use of the Jominy test for aluminum alloys (Table I). The material for this investigation consisted of extruded rods 1 1/4 to 136 in. in diam. The chemical compositions were as follows: The modified L-type Jominy specimen with dimensions shown in Fig I was selected as the most convenient means for obtaining a wide range of cooling rates. The standard Jominy specimen was not satisfactory because its cooling rate was not sufficiently high. The four flat surfaces machined at right angles along the length of the L-type specimen to a depth of 0.015 in. facilitated the hardness measurements. The specimens were machined from the extruded stock with no intermediate forging. New specimens were used for each aging experiment. The specimens were given solution treatments of 2 hr duration at recommended temperatures in a Hoskins furnace (Table 2). The temperature of the furnace was maintained constant to 3°C. No protective atmosphere was necessary because the thin film of oxide that formed on the surface of the specimens had no effect on the hardness measurements. AT

Jan 1, 1949

By Wei-Kao Lu, G. Bitsianes

An improved general rate equation for a one-ditnensional gas-solid system has been derived. Fov the veversihle interfacial chemical reaction, there are concentrations of gaseous reactant and product at the reacting zone to be considered. They have been calculated with the velations fuvnished by the constraints on the system, namely, quasi-steady state and equimolal counterdiffusion of the gases. The results of the diffusiori study of Evans, Watson, and ,Mason based on the "dusty gas" model have been applied here. The interfacial chemical reaction is taken as first-order with respect to the concentration of the gases involved. The equation has proper dependence on gas composition and on solid structure through the relative values of Knudsen and normal diffusivities. The existence of the total pressure gradient inside the specimen has been predicted and confirmed experimentally. In a previous communication&apos; we introduced a general rate equation for gas-solid reactions by considering the contributions of chemical reaction at inter- phase boundaries and diffusion through the solid product layer simultaneously. These equations, for one-dimensional and spherical specimens, take care of the whole range continuously from purely diffusion control to purely chemical reaction control. In this paper we study only the one-dimensional system. The corresponding rate equation is reproduced here: Of the two terms on the right-hand side of Eq. [I], the first represents the contribution of interfacial chemical reaction and the second that of gaseous diffusion. The shortcomings of Eq. [I] are that in its derivation the interfacial chemical reaction was assumed to be irreversible and the diffusion rate of gaseous product was not considered. Any pressure effects building up within the porous media were also neglected. Evidently. these simplifying assumptions will limit the general applicability of these equations. The rate of reduction of iron oxide by hydrogen, for instance, is very sensitive to the concentration of water vapor in the main gas stream, as has been reported by cewan&apos; and by Quets et a1.3 Furthermore, the gaseous phase at the reacting interface will contain an appreciable amount of the gaseous product of reaction. If this were not true, a sufficiently high concentration gradient for the outward diffusion of the gaseous product could not be maintained. With these shortcomings in mind, Eq. [1I cannot be rigorously ap-

Jan 1, 1967