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By Magnus Ruin

The dry deep mixing method for stabilization of soft soil has been used in the Scandinavian countries for 25 years. The typical application has been stabilization of soft inorganic clay. Today the method is used more frequently in organic soil with good results. The Limix System, introduced in the USA by Hercules Grundläggning AB and TREVIICOS Corporation, is a cost-effective dry deep mixing method used to stabilize most types of soft soil. This paper presents the general principles of stabilizing organic soil with the dry mix method and two case histories of soil stabilization projects in organic soil. Between October 2000 and June 2001 the Limix System was used in England to stabilize soft organic alluvium at the Channel Tunnel Rail Link, Contract 440. During year 2000 the Limix System was used in soft organic soil in Holland near the Groene Hart Tunnel entrance to support trench excavations for slurry walls and concrete barrettes.

Jan 1, 2001

By Kazunori Matsushita, Frank Vespi, Emi Walder, Mitsuo Nozu

During the runway expansion project at the Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport in Florida (FLL project), therewere complicated geotechnical issues with a number of cavities in the limestone-loose sand mixed ground thatexisted in many areas below the existing ground. Collapsing the cavities and compacting the runway foundation to secure the take-off and landing of aircrafts was a necessary requirement for the project. The Mammoth Vibro-Tamper (MVT) which produces less vibration and noise level, was proposed and accepted as the alternative to the originally specified Deep Dynamic Compaction (DDC) for the runway with its length of 1.5 miles and area of 570,000 square yards. In this report, the shallow compaction effect and reduced ground vibration with the MVT are presented in comparison with the DDC which was utilized on the same project in a different area of the airport. INTRODUCTION MVT was developed by Fudo Tetra Corporation in the 1960’s and has been widely used in Japan (more than 14,400,000 square yards). For example, at the Kansai International airport, a large area including aprons was compacted with the MVT. It is capable of compacting up to approximately 5m in depth by using a heavy steel plate (3m x 3m) and a strong vibrator motor (V-180, 10Hz) on top of the steel thick plate with specified time duration. We were involved in densification work with the MVT at the Fort Lauderdale Airport Project (Figure 1) from June, 2012 to February, 2014. Deep Dynamic Compaction (DDC) was originally specified as the compaction method to secure the relative density over 70% in every 2,000 square yards grids, however, we proposed the application of MVT to reduce the vibration risk and it was accepted as the alternative (Figure 2). The compaction work was completed in February 2014, without causing any delay in regard to the residual settlement due to the high embankment (H=60ft=18m).

Jan 1, 2018

By David S. Yang

The Cement Deep Soil Mixing (CDSM) method introduces and mixes cementitious materials with in situ soils using hollow-stem rotating shafts equipped with a cutting tool at the tip and mixing paddles above the tip. CDSM generally produces a soil-cement panel consisting of three overlapping soil-cement columns. The soil-cement panel is then extended to form walls, which are effective for excavation support and groundwater control due to the continuity and low permeability of soil-cement walls. Two design approaches could be taken in the application of CDSM for excavation support: 1) single wall design and 2) gravity wall design. The former one is treated as a wall technology and the latter one is treated as a soil stabilization method. This paper will review the CDSM equipment and installation procedures for the construction of these two types of soil-cement walls. Four case examples are used to illustrate the design and application of these two types of soil-cement walls.

Jan 1, 2003

By E. Mongilardi

The construction of large underground openings through cohesionless or weak cohesive soils and under the water table in particular, often requires a ground improvement to be done from the surface or ahead of the excavation face in tunnelling problems. To this purpose various injection procedures have been used in the past and new outstanding techniques have been developed recently, such as "jet-grouting", extending the feasibility range. The paper presents a review of basic principles and practical design criteria with particular reference to the newest trends of development. Case histories have been selected within the experience of specialist contractor Rodio Co. showing the variety of problems solved by manifold grouting procedures and layouts, in widely different soils ranging from the sandy-gravelly alluvia of Milan to the soft marine clays of Singapore.

Jan 1, 2010

By Nikolaus Schneider

"Abstract: The combination of failure in joints of diaphragm walls and their exposure to water pressure may have far reaching effects ranging from water leakage to the risk of catastrophic loss of stability for the retaining wall and civil structures behind it. Investigations of imperfect joints in diaphragm walls have led to the development and testing of a quality tool to monitor the joint integrity of diaphragm walls during construction. By applying independent mechanical sensors (“joint inspector”) to the steel frame of hydraulic or mechanical grabs, it is now possible to record the surface conditions of exposed primary joints during the construction of secondary panels. This allows for the implementation of corrective action during the construction process should joint quality not indicate a watertight connection to the adjacent panel. The joint inspector, used for different types of stop ends, was tested on a full scale test field at several construction sites. The implementation of this new quality tool drives a new quality standard for deep excavations in inner city areas.General introduction to diaphragm wallsDiaphragm walls are reinforced concrete elements constructed using bentonite slurry to temporarily support an open trench in the ground. They are used in two main fields of application in civil construction, as foundation elements for vertical and horizontal loads (barrettes) and as retaining walls for excavation pits.Particularly for deep excavation pits in inner city areas, diaphragm walls are used as temporary or permanent walls of retaining walls. Alternative retaining wall systems would be secant pile walls, sheet piles or soldier piles, but these have disadvantages in structural strength when compared to diaphragm walls. If the vertical load of existing buildings next to the excavation pit has to be accommodated, the most practical solution can be found using diaphragm walls supported by prestressed anchors, steel struts or slabs."

Jan 1, 2014

By Dan A. Brown

Outline ? Basic Concept of ACIP Piles ? Factors Affecting ACIP Pile Performance ? Applications: - Favorable Conditions - Unfavorable Conditions ? Design for Axial Loading ? Lateral Loading Considerations ? Summary & Conclusions

Jan 1, 2004

By David G. Winter

The Olive 8 excavation site in Seattle was surrounded on three sides by conditions requiring innovation, careful modeling, and extensive instrumentation to support use of a first-of-its-kind shoring system. The solution combined heavy soldier piles, long and steeply angled tieback anchors, and tightly spaced soil nails to support surcharge loads from a 33-story adjacent tower separated by a narrow alley housing critical utility lines. Land restrictions on two other sides of the site also required innovative applications of traditional methods. The Olive 8 project has won three state and local awards for innovation and has been reported on in Engineering News-Record and has been the subject of two feature articles in the Seattle Daily Journal of Commerce. This paper presents the conditions and site challenges, reviews the design analysis, discusses the shoring performance, and looks at other potential applications.

Jan 1, 2009

By Roy A. Imbsen

Following the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) expedited an effort to evaluate and retrofit important state-owned toll bridges to en­hance performance of the state's transportation systems during and after major (credible) earthquake events. Imbsen and Associates, Inc. (IAI) along with their sub-consultants, were awarded a contract to conduct seismic evaluation and to develop retrofit design for Benicia-Martinez Toll structure, to meet a "Serviceable" performance requirement after the event of a "Safety Evaluation Earthquake." This paper describes the design and construction specifications for the deep foundations supporting the main spans of the Benicia-Martinez Bridge. Benicia-Martinez Toll Structure (George Miller Bridge), a high-level deck-type welded truss bridge with welded girder approach spans, carries Interstate Route I-680 over the easterly end of Carquinez Strait near San Francisco, CA. The nearly 5000 ft long main truss structure consists of ten spans, ranging from 330' to 528' in length, supported on cellular reinforced con­crete pier structures. Foundation systems across the waterway, consist of cellular reinforced concrete footings, supported by groups of 6' diameter, concrete filled, steel caissons, resting on 5' deep rock sockets, at depths of 50' to 150' below the water level. Seismic evaluation of the existing foundation systems accounted for spatially varying ground motion along the length of the structure, variability of foundation material strength (i.e. at bed-rock), variation and effects of scour depth on the performance of the foundations, and dy­namic soil-structure interaction. Performance of caissons beyond their elastic strength, as well as their effects on the behavior of the foundations and substructures were evaluated and considered in establishing foundation vulnerabilities. Several retrofit strategies were considered leading to a final retrofit strategy to strengthen end connections of existing caissons, as well addition of new caissons to provide adequate lateral force resistance for the foundations. Final design package includes specifications as well as construction methods and requirements for existing and new caissons, under traffic, and pile load testing procedures for design loads of up to 12500 kips per caisson.

Jan 1, 1998

By Michael H. Wysockey

The load test program for the pile foundation at Soldier Field included static and dynamic load tests at four locations around the site. The dynamic tests were run with no knowledge of the static results, and comparison between the two is very good. It was necessary to use a special testing hammer (not the production hammer) to demonstrate capacity with dynamic testing. Over 90% of the piles were HP14x89 with a design load of 230 tons (18 ksi). The load tests showed a capacity in excess of 590 tons for all tests where sufficient set up time was allowed. The remainder of the piles were mostly HP 12x53 with a design load of 100 tons (13 ksi). The measured capacity of these piles was typically about 250 tons. One experimental HP12×74 pile with a nominal yield of 65 ksi held 730 tons (67 ksi) before failing.

Jan 1, 2002

By Peter J. Nicholson

Since the reintroduction of soil mixing to the United States over 10 years ago, the work installed by soil mixing technology has grown dramatically. From an annual turnover of less than ten million dollars per year the volume of soil mixing put in place has grown to an estimated $40 million per year in the year 2000. The majority of work done to date has involved walls, either for excavation support, permanent retaining structures or hydraulic cut-off walls. The other major use for soil mixing has been for mass stabilization of soils whether for isolation of contaminants or for retaining structures. This paper will discuss the uses of and costs of typical soil mix structures. BACKGROUND Soil mixing is defined as the in-situ combining of reagents, typically cement, with native soils, the purpose being to modify or improve the ground. This history of soil mixing covers only the use of cement slurry, aggregated with soil in-situ by mechanical mixing methods only. Soil mixing by use of high-pressure hydraulic means, also known as Jet Grouting, will not be discussed. In addition this will not cover ex-situ (above ground) mixing, or mixing dry reagents with soil. Only mixing applications for building, civil and heavy construction applications will be discussed, with only passing reference made to uses of soil mixing for environmental remediation work.

Jan 1, 2001

By Murad Y. Abu-Farsakh

This paper presents the analyses of load-transfer (t-z) behavior of twelve prestressed concrete (PSC) instrumented test piles that were driven in different locations of Louisiana. The load transfer method is an efficient and practical tool for the analysis of single driven pile to predict the ultimate load. The test piles were instrumented with vibrating wire strain gauges in order to calculate the shear transfer for different soil layers during the static load test. The static load test was performed on all the test piles after 10 to 14 days of end of driving. Empirical load-transfer models were proposed previously by different researchers (Fleming 1992, Hirayama 1990, Krasinski 2012, Bohn et al. 2017) after analyzing the instrumented test pile results. For this study, load transfer of each soil layer was measured and compared with the previously developed existing model. The stiffness parameter (M) for the hyperbolic equation was calibrated in order to best match the measurements. The good agreement of the proposed curves was then confirmed by applying them to assess the overall load-settlement curve of other pile load test results available in the literature. INTRODUCTION The load transfer mechanism (stress-strain relationship) for an axially loaded pile usually comprises of three loading mechanisms: axial deformation in the pile (z), soil skin friction along the shaft (qs), and soil end-bearing (qb). The development of soil skin friction with axial deformation is referred as the t-z curve, and the development of soil end-bearing with axial deformation is referred as the q-z curve. Figure 1 presents the load transfer mechanisms in an axially loaded pile and the corresponding spring mass models for t-z and q-z curves (API, 2002). In order to construct the load transfer curve in clay under vertical load, the axial load transfer (t-z) curve and end-bearing load transfer (q-z) for that particular soil should be assessed separately. The axial load transfer (t-z) method is probably the most widely used technique to study the problem of single axially loaded piles. Therefore, the load transfer through the shaft of the pile and are getting more and more important compared to the only the pile capacity analyses. The load transferred from shaft to the surrounding clay soil is a function of the width of the pile and the surface roughness of the pile and clay properties. The development of a representative procedure allows the assessment of the t-z curve in soil (sand and/or clay) that leads to the prediction of a nonlinear vertical load-settlement response at the pile head.

Jan 1, 2018

By Frank Rausche

Since the early 1980s, when the Road Construction Authority of Victoria authorized the dynamic proof testing of roughly 100 drilled shafts of 1.5 m diameter and typically 60 m length in Melbourne Australia, dynamic load testing has been applied worldwide for quality control of drilled shafts. Today, test capacities of 4000 tons or more are not unusual. On numerous occasions the authors have been involved in similar tests in the United States and test engineers from other countries have reported on experiences in many different countries. Without doubt, generating high test loads is most economically accomplished by dynamic load testing and this method is particularly well suited for testing piles founded in rock because of the rocks low energy dissipation. However, deep foundation professionals have on occasion expressed reservations about subjecting a drilled shaft to impact loadings fearing, for example, a degradation of the shaft ? rock interface properties or potential error sources due to uncertain concrete properties or shaft geometry. This paper will present numerous case studies, demonstrating the performance of rock socketed drilled shafts under dynamic loads. It will discuss the mechanics of the dynamic tests and the method of data interpretation, addressing the concerns stated above and investigating the limitations of the test method. The paper will formulate a set of recommendations for the design and execution of these tests.

Jan 1, 2006

By Fawad S. Niazi

Ever since the use of the cone penetration test (CPT) in geotechnical practice, attempts have been made to correlate CPT parameters with pile capacity components of unit end bearing (qb) and unit shaft resistance (fp), thus deriving multiple CPT-based pile design methods. These methods focus on "capacity" only without consideration to complete axial pile load-displacement (Q-w) response. Estimated capacities from these methods also exhibit considerable scatter without any consensus on their consistency. In addition, load-displacement curves obtained from axial load tests on highly expensive and extensively instrumented piles can exhibit different shapes. Nevertheless, a single value from the curve so obtained dictates the design capacity. Currently, there are at least 42 different criteria defining capacity with considerable variation in the values obtained thereof. The Randolph elastic solution, which provides a framework for analytical evaluation of pile load-displacement response, requires the profiles of soil stiffness. The fundamental soil stiffness defined by the small-strain shear modulus (Gmax) can be obtained from shear wave velocity (Vs) readings via seismic piezocone tests (SCPTu). The secant stiffness (G), which softens from Gmax corresponding to operational load levels, can be obtained by generating stiffness reduction curves from back analysis of load tests. Then, using appropriate G values, the Q-w curve can be defined for conditions similar to the database from the pseudo strain (w/d). Thus, a complete framework for optimal integration of SCPTu data, Randolph elastic solution and back-analysis of field operational stiffness can be established for complete axial pile foundation analysis.

Jan 1, 2011

By Harry G. Poulos

Ground movements can arise from a large number of sources and can have a significant effect on nearby piles and deep foundations. The loading of the piles by ground movements is a different mechanism to that arising from direct applied loading to the pile head, and consequently it is not generally possible to adequately analyze the effects of ground movements simply by applying some type of equivalent loading to the pile head. The main effects of ground movements are the development of additional movements, axial forces and bending moments in the piles, and thus the key design aspects are related to movements and to the structural integrity of the pile. However, the ultimate geotechnical load carrying capacity is generally not affected by the ground movements themselves. This paper will describe an approach to the analysis of ground movement effects on piles, considering axial and lateral movements separately. Some of the main features of pile response will be discussed for three specific problems involving ground movements: piles near and within embankments, piles near an excavation for a pile cap, and piles subjected to seismic ground motions.

Jan 1, 2006

By Robert A. Field

Static-Load Piledriving utilizes a hydraulic push to facilitate the installation of a pile. The pile is not rotated, impacted or vibrated. A smooth pushing force advances the pile incrementally into the ground. Static-Load devices must have a reaction mass to push against. The most simple form of a Static-Load device is a jack; more advanced equipment, such as the Still Worker, also utilizes this approach. This paper focuses on the use of the Still Worker on three challenging projects. In each case, the existing site conditions made it risky, or unattractive, to utilize conventional impact, vibratory, or drilled-shaft equipment.

Jan 1, 1997

By Alexander J. Verstraeten

The design and construction of foundations for power transmission line towers present some special problems. This paper describes a system of design and construction for these foundations that was developed in Europe and has attained general use there because of its reliability and cost effectiveness. Transmission line foundations distinguish themselves by having to deal not only with compressive and lateral loads, but with uplift loads and, because of the wind (in some regions earthquakes), with dynamic loading. The construction of transmission line foundations distinguishes itself mainly in the great number of inaccesible locations involved, resulting in extensive geotechnical investigation and logistical problems in moving men, materials and equipment.

Jan 1, 1987

By James W. Weaver

The 2,120-foot long cable stayed Penobscot Narrows Bridge that carries US Route 1 over the Penobscot River between Verona Island and Prospect, Maine is supported on four foundation units, one below each pylon and one at each abutment. Due to varying subsurface conditions along the bridge alignment, the structure was designed to be supported on foundations consisting of high-capacity steel H-section piles (Verona Pylon), a mat bearing on a prepared bedrock surface (Prospect Pylon) and spread footings bearing on compacted rockfill (abutments). The 70-foot by 80-foot (plan area) Verona Pylon foundation was designed to be supported by 288, 430-kip design capacity steel H-section piles (HP14x117, 50 ksi steel) driven through up to 100 feet of dense glacial till deposits containing cobbles and boulders up to 3 feet in diameter. The piles were installed using a single-acting diesel hammer (Delmag D62-22) with a maximum rated energy of 165 kip-ft. Thirteen representative piles were selected for dynamic testing (ASTM D-4945) to verify pile capacity, hammer efficiency and pile stresses. Dynamic testing determined that four different pile driving criteria were needed across the site due to variation in the bedrock and soil resistance below the footing plan area. Approximately 4 percent of the production piles were damaged/rejected due to misalignment and/or damage as a result of encountering the cobbles and boulders embedded in the glacial till. The rejected piles were located randomly throughout the plan limits of the foundation mat. Subsequent structural analyses indicated that the foundation was capable of safely supporting the design loads without the need for installing replacement piles. Evaluation of dynamic testing results with signal matching and pile driving records provided valuable information on pile side and tip resistance. Evaluations were made regarding predicted versus actual pile lengths, pile bearing material, distribution of skin friction and end bearing capacities.

Jan 1, 2011

By Sheryl D. Gallagher

The project consisted of filling an abandoned underground limestone mine to facilitate construction of a new entrance ramp to I-470 in Lee?s Summit, Missouri. Due to collapse of mined areas near the project site, design included determination of the limits of remediation for the project and minimum construction requirements for mine infilling. The Judy Company, contractor selected for the mine infilling, experimented in the laboratory with several grout mixes to determine the appropriate mix for the project. Infilling was accomplished from the ground surface, and camera observation was used to monitor the barrier wall construction and infilling process. It was discovered that some of the mapped rooms were larger and some were smaller than indicated on the construction plan.

Jan 1, 2009

By Chris G. Leach

"Abstract A seven storey Northbridge area of Perth, Western Australia presented residential apartment complex located in the an opportunity for a novel application of Cutter Soil Mix technology (CSM). The development included a two-level basement for car parking which covered the full site area. However, the basement was also required to extend under an existing single story heritage building. Soil conditions comprised 2m of fill overlying medium dense to dense sands that in turn were overlying a very stiff clay stratum at approximately 14-16m depth. The ground water table was located at a depth of approximately 1m below the natural surface level.A site boundary consisting of a reinforced CSM retention system and was designed and installed to allow the excavation to proceed to basement level. Two rows of temporary soils anchors or inclined struts were required to achieve this. A CSM support system for the heritage building was also designed and constructed to provide temporary support during excavation and permanent construction works. The brief for the contract works emphasised that it was vital that settlements of the heritage building be kept within strict limits.CSM is a relatively new introduction to the Australian construction market, using a modified trench cutter to mix a binder slurry with in situ soils, generally to form cut-off walls, retaining walls and soil improvement works. This project is understood to be first application of the CSM for underpinning work in Australia.This paper discusses the site background details leading to the decision by the client to adopt CSM technology, and the design and construction aspects to meet the challenges offered by this project.Introduction190 Newcastle St is a 7-level residential apartment complex located in the Northbridge area of Perth, Western Australia. The development includes a 2 level basement for car parking, which covers the full site area. The basement also extends under a single story heritage building, which remained in-situ throughout the building works.A site boundary retention system was required to allow the excavation to basement level to proceed. In addition, a support system for the heritage building was required to provide temporary support during excavation and permanent construction works."

Jan 1, 2014

By Howard A. Perko, M. Mae Benvenga, Heather H. Trantham

Displacement of soil and groundwater during helical pile installation can produce excess pore water pressures (PWP) in fine-grained soils. Pore water pressure reduces effective stress in the soil immediately adjacent to the helical pile shaft and near the helical piles. Previous studies have shown generation of PWP may affect the capacity to torque ratios of the helical bearing elements. Large diameter helical piles that generate much of their torque and capacity from shaft adhesion are affected by PWP and therefore exhibit significant pile "freeze" after installation. Computer modeling is used herein to evaluate PWP immediately adjacent to helical pile shafts during installation in various soil types. The models show the degree and distance from the shaft that is influenced by PWP during installation and the amount of time required for the PWP to dissipate. Pile freeze has been measured on several project sites by re‐torque measurements. These re-torque data are compared with computer modeling and correlations between saturated hydraulic conductivity and dissipation time are presented and discussed. INTRODUCTION Helical piles are full-displacement piles, meaning installation does not produce drill spoil. Soil is displaced laterally as the pile progresses into the ground. This displacement of soil causes an increase in PWP, which reduces adhesion between the pile and the soil. For helical piles with small-diameter shafts, adhesion contributes little to the overall capacity and torque of the pile, so PWP changes are not typically considered in determining pile capacity. In modern construction, the use of larger diameter helical piles has become very common. For large-diameter helical piles, changes in PWP immediately adjacent the shaft can be quite large during installation. Increased pore water pressure and reduced adhesion can have a temporary effect on pile capacity and installation torque.

Jan 1, 2018