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By John V. Beall

Cutting costs and increasing safety with new ideas is the byword with The Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co. on the Marquette Range in Michigan. Among the new ideas being tried out are mechanical shaft mucking, prefabricated lagging to replace timber poles, Carset bits in shaft sinking, and rubber tired guide wheels on the ore skips. Plans are being made to stockpile ore with conveyor belts during the winter. In sinking the Mather "B" Shaft a 3/8-yd clamshell-type bucket is used for mucking. The clamshell is opened and closed by means of a verticallymounted hydraulic ram actuated by 5000 psi oil pressure. An Ingersoll Rand-type hoist is used to raise and lower the clamshell. The hoist is controlled by one member of the crew on the floor of the shaft. When the bucket is raised, the men swing it over the muck pile to the desired position and then it is lowered on to the broken rock. The 1400-lb weight of the bucket causes it to sink into the broken rock and it digs as the ram closes the bucket. The hydraulic ram is operated by a man on the lowest shaft steel set who controls a specially designed oil pump which supplies oil pressure. The clamshell is emptied.

Jan 1, 1949

The Nominating Committee desire to submit the following nominations. President and Director: SIDNEY J. JENNINGS District 0 Vice-President and Director: H. S. DRINKER District 2 R. M. RAYMOND District 0 Directors: G. C. STONE District 0 HENNEN JENNINGS District 9 S. A. TAYLOR District 2 F. G. COTTRELL District 6 ARTHUR THACHER District 3 These nominations were unanimous. By order of the Committee J. V. N. DORR, Chairman. Oct. 10. 1917.

Jan 12, 1917

By William N. Poundstone

To forecast the future of coal intelligently, one must first consider the market outlook. Coal can be used for many purposes, but currently about 25% of it goes into metallurgical coke, while 75% serves as fuel. Coal for metallurgical coke should show a modest growth for at least the next decade, primarily because of increased exports, but the important factor in the coal outlook is energy. Today, this country faces a serious shortage of energy, and its requirements are growing at an almost unbelievable rate. Last year the United States consumed 68 quadrillion Btu, or double the energy it consumed in 1950, and, if projections are correct, this figure will grow to 150 quadrillion Btu by 1990. Thus, in one working lifetime, the nation's energy consumption is expected to increase by roughly five times. The future of coal hinges on its degree of participation in meeting this energy need. The Federal Power Commission predicts that coal consumed by electric utilities will increase about 4-576 per yr, reaching 472 million tons by 1980 and 615 million tons by 1990. If this projection proves correct, 1980 consumption will be double that of last year and, even more startling, the utility industry alone will use more coal in 1990 than the entire coal industry produced in 1970. This is a tremendous increase, but in view of the projected energy growth, it is difficult to see how this country's needs can be satisfied with- out a coal contribution of this magnitude. Unless some new source such as solar energy is discovered, it must be assumed that the projected energy will come principally from the present-day sources-oil, gas, nuclear materials and coal.

Jan 1, 1971

S. F. EMMONS RESEARCH FELLOWSHIP. The movement was started by a number of the friends and admirers of the late S. F. Emmons, Economic Geologist of the United States Geological Survey, to perpetuate his name through a fellowship to be known as the ?S. F. Emmons Research Fellowship," and they have succeeded in raising some $13,000 for the purpose of carrying on research work in economic geology. The Committee in charge of this Memorial Fund has succeeded in obtaining the co-operation of Professors Kemp, of Columbia, Irving, of Yale, and Lindgren, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in the administration of this fellowship. These three gentlemen are respectively geologists of the institutions mentioned and are exceptionally qualified to determine in what direction the fund can be best administered. It is hoped that additional contributions will be forthcoming from many who have heard of this movement. Subscriptions are invited and may be sent to any one of these gentlemen, or to Benjamin B. Lawrence, Treasurer, No. 60 Wall Street, New York City.

Jan 10, 1913

By C. Richard Tinsley, Norman Miskelly, S. James Hodge

Construction of the Ranger uranium project, located 230 kms east of Darwin in the Northern Territory, Australia, commenced in January 1979. Energy Resources of Australia Ltd (ERA) was incorporated in February 1980 to acquire all the rights in the project. The total cost to ERA of these rights was A$407 million, made up of A$125 million in cash to the Federal Government and the issue of 125 million A$1.00 shares at par, plus a payment of A$16 million in cash to each of Peko-Wallsend Ltd. (Peko) and EZ Industries Ltd. (EZ). ERA's cash requirements to complete the project were estimated in October 1980 to be A$553 million. Project loans, secured by first ranking debenture stock, were arranged for a total of US$390 million, while second-ranking debenture loans totalling A$60 million were [ ] obtained from the vendors, Peko and EZ. Overseas participants (power utilities who had agreed to purchase uranium yellowcake under contract) arranged to take up 25% of the equity capital for A$102.5 million; Peko and EZ were allotted 30.5% each as satisfaction of vendors' consideration; and 14% representing A$57.5 million was issued to Australian residents in an underwritten public flotation in November, 1980. The loan and equity financing arrangements required the successful resolution of many complex and interlocking factors, including technical and economic feasibility, agreement with Aboriginal interests, compliance with Government policies, and securing of sales contracts.

Jan 1, 1985

D. B. DOWLING,* Ottawa, Ont.-I do not propose to start any argument, but really there is a comeback to what Mr. Coste says.1 Geography is probably not geology, but geology is geography. You cannot regard structure as geography on the surface, but it is geology as soon as you get under the surface. In Canada, it is quite true that they went too close to the Rocky Mountains. When boring in the foothills, as Mr. Coste says, they were too close to the mountains where they got into a faulted area, and if there had been storage, it probably would have lost a good deal of the oil. The situation in the Calgary field is one that might be interpreted in many ways, but in front f the foothills there is a very deep syncline. The gas and oil that is recovered on the edge of the, foothills is of such a nature that we must assume that it is not the pure crude oil. It seems to be somewhat refined, or a condensation product. The solution, or at least the argument that appeals to me, is that as the deeper part of that basin is, say, 6000 ft. below sea level, there must have been some breaking up of the oil on account of pressure and of the heat, and we are getting gas, traveling up toward the surface in the foothills; and as it comes up, it probably condenses again, and is caught in folds on the edge of the syncline so that we have a natural condensing machine there. The oil is not found on the eastern side of the folds, it is found on the western side. On the eastern side and on the summit there is a little light oil, gasoline, we will say, blowing into the well once in a while; now that looks like a natural condensation of the gas and a storage behind the summit.

Jan 5, 1919

By Kenyon E. Richard, James H. Courtright

Thomas W. Mitcham (Strategic Minerals, Inc., Grand Junction, Colo.)—The authors have presented a significant contribution to the field of mining geology. The article is graphic, remarkably concise, and crisply original. The presentation is made on only three pages with two maps, but their Silver Bell story is entirely adequate in background, development, and conclusion. Most of their colleagues would agree that this paper reflects the high quality of the work which these unusually capable men have done in the Silver Bell area over the past few years. The Silver Bell area is one of complex tectonic structure, and time and spatial relationships are by no means apparent. Actually, most of the observations and interpretations in this paper are new to published geologic literature on the Silver Bell area. I am in agreement with these interpretations with two possible exceptions, which are discussed below. One might well define the three roughly parallel west-northwest faults, shown on the insert of Fig. 2, as the major structural elements of the area. North to south, I propose that these be named the Ragged Mountain fault, the Silver Bell fault zone, and the Waterman thrust, after the mountain ranges which are the results of these major structures. While I would agree with the authors that the northern two of these major structures are high-angle faults of the Laramide revolution, my impression is that the southern structure is a low-angle thrust of approximately Miocene age. In support of this opinion, I submit the following observations: 1) irregularity of the fault in strike; 2) scarcity of Laramide intrusives and alteration of sediments along the fault; 3) present high re- lief of the Waterman Range which indicates youth or certainly rejuvenation; and 4) existence of a series of parallel structures farther to the south which results in an outcrop pattern suggesting imbricate thrusting. The authors have stated that Laramide igneous activity began with the intrusion of alaskite. Some dacite flows appear to be conformable with Cretaceous beds, and thus my impression was that alaskite followed the intrusion and extrusion of dacite. I would be interested to learn of evidence in support of the reverse relationship suggested by the authors. Kenyon Richard and J. H. Courtright (authors' reply)—The authors appreciate Mr. Mitcham's attention to this paper. The names he proposed for the major faults seem appropriate. His suggestion that the Waterman fault is a thrust may be correct because he did more work in that particular area than the authors. However, it is believed that no direct evidence of a low-angle thrust relationship has been recognized, and the authors consider that indirect evidence favors a high-angle fault interpretation. The pre-dacite flow age of the alaskite is definitely established, the authors believe, by the fact that the flows rest on an erosion surface which was carved in the dacite porphyry, an intrusive clearly younger than the alaskite, as evidenced by inclusions of alaskite occurring in dacite porphyry. No direct evidence of Cretaceous sediment-flow rock relationships was found at Silver Bell, but in the nearby Tucson mountains dacite agglomerates, megascopically similar to those at Silver Bell, overlie a basal conglomerate which in turn rests on the truncated edges of steep-dipping Cretaceous arkosic beds.

Jan 1, 1956

Jan 1, 1887

By Clinton H. Crane

DR. TILNEY, the great expert on the study of the development of the brain of human beings and animals, tells us that the greatest difference between the human brain and the brain of animals is that man alone has shown evidence of being able to predict the future. Just why he throws overboard the busy bee who lays up honey for the winter, the squirrel who gathers nuts, and the humble ant, I do not know. At any rate, it is nice to be assured by an authority that we have this power of prophecy. My own experience with attempting to prophesy the future has convinced me that our only possibility of being good prophets is to be good students of history.

Jan 1, 1940

By Richard A. Hawkins

O the American coal man, Australian coal mining most appear to have little, if any, influence on American coal-mining practice and to bear little relation to it. Actually, the relationship has been close, for Australian operators have carefully studied American practice by reading American technical publications, by consulting American engineers, and by visits to Ameriean operations. They have leaned heavily on America for their supply of mechanization equipment and many American mining-machinery manufacturers are active in that country, supplying its needs and furnishing technical assistance. Australia's influence on American coal mining has been obscure and probably negligible. However, it seems reasonable to assume that this influence will increase. The wartime development of air transportation will inevitably bring these two countries into much more intimate contact than existed in recent years. American servicemen. many of them former miners and coal-mining technicians, have visited Australian operation, while stationed in that country, have talked with operators and men over there, and undoubt-

Jan 1, 1945

By John Dasher

Extrapolation is a useful technique, but it can be overdone. Seldom is it justified to study over a range of 1 to 6 and extrapolate the results to 150,000. It is especially dangerous if the extrapolation is based on a false assumption. The authors assume settlers scale-up by residence time rather than by area, admit their result (a settler depth of 7 m) is "unreasonable" and suggest longer, wider, shallower settlers might be better. Various authors have noted for a copper-LIX system a total flow basis of 2 gpm per sq ft for sizing settlers. The results of this are compared with those in the paper in [Table 7]. The authors note that flooding of their settlers was never approached. Thus the smallest unit calculated is understandably twice too big. The largest however, is 5% of the required size. I note that the figures in [Table 6] for 1/min/cm2 are based on plan area rather than cross section as titled and are wrong by l0 4. A flow of 2050 1/min/cm2 is about Mach I. It is also 10 5/3 or 46.5 times that of the little one, although the abstract says the design was based on constant flow rate per unit cross section.

Jan 1, 1977

S. F. EMMONS RESEARCH FELLOWSHIP. The movement was started by a number of the friends and admirers of the late S. F. Emmons, Economic Geologist of the United States Geological Survey, to perpetuate his name through a fellowship to be known as the " S. F. Emmons Research Fellowship," and they have succeeded in raising some $13,000 for the purpose of carrying on research work in economic geology. The Committee in charge of this Memorial Fund has succeeded in obtaining the co-operation of Professors Kemp, of Columbia, Irving, of Yale, and Lindgren, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in the administration of this fellowship. These three gentlemen are respectively geologists of the institutions mentioned and are exceptionally qualified to determine in what direction the fund can be best administered. It is hoped that additional contributions will be forthcoming from many who have heard of this movement. Subscriptions are invited and may be sent to any one of these gentlemen, or to Benjamin B. Lawrence, Treasurer, No. 60 Wall Street, New York City.

Jan 11, 1913

Jan 1, 1884

By Joseph B. Umpleby

PROGRESS in the petroleum industry in 1929 has been characterized by outstanding accomplishments in the fields of new discovery of supply, economic control of production, increased efficiency and reduced costs of recovery, and lowered costs and greater flexibility in manufacture. Resources have been developed in an outstanding degree in the Kettleman Hills. California, the Oklahoma City field (which adds a large potential area in central Oklahoma), the discovery of Woodbine sand production in East Texas, and the discovery of Wilcox sand production in west-central Kansas. Engineering technique has progressed both along the lines of development and production, with a net result that costs have been reduced and extraction increased in notable degree, although it is impossible to give a close measure of either. In the field of re- fining crude oils variations to the end of promoting reduced cost and greater flexibility has been more important than genera! acceptance of innovations in practice.

Jan 1, 1930

By H. P. Greenwald

IN the year just passed the Coal Division's Committee on Rock-Dusting reviewed the status of this safety measure in American coal mines and prepared a paper thereon which will be presented at the February meeting of the Institute. This paper supplements one appearing in Vol. 139 of the "Transactions," page 87 (1940). Because that paper will be issued soon, only a summary is given herein.

Jan 1, 1944

By M. J. Duggin

Evidence is produced below to show that the carbide "Mn,C," reported by Kw,and ersson' is really a mixture of two carbides. One is an Fe-Mn carbide which is probably isomorphous with hexagonal Mn15C4, reported by Bouchand and Pruchart.' The othev is a tetragonul Fe-Mn carbide with cell dzmensions close to those reported previously by the author3 for an Fe0.1Mno. carbide. IN a recent investigation several Fe-Mn carbide specimens, each weighing about 5 g, were prepared in a manner previously reported.3 Debye-Scherrer X-ray photographs were taken of at least two samples from different parts of each specimen using a 114.6-mm-diam camera. The exposure time was 2 hr using filtered chromium radiation, a tube voltage of 35 kv and a tube current of 10 ma. In the case of one specimen, which contained nominal weight percentages of iron, manganese, and carbon of 9.40, 84. 6,, and 6.0, respectively, duplicate chemical analyses indicated f1.2 and 5.5 wt pct C to be present in the two samples taken of the specimen: no graphitic carbon was detected. One powder-diffraction pattern of this specimen indicated the presence of the tetragons: carbide reported earlier,3 (a = 6.772A, c = 9.427A), plus cementite (O), plus an unknown structure. The second powder-

Jan 1, 1970

By J. T. Price

The study was undertaken to investigate the effect in the charge to a blast furnace of zinc and alkali contents, which tend to form accretions and scaffolds in the upper sections of the furnace. Commercial iron oxide pellets were reduced in a CO:N2, 40:60 gas mixture in a 5-cm by 5-m counter-current reactor (Rist-type apparatus) designed to simulate blast-furnace conditions. Pellets from a commercial magnetite concentrate were prepared in the laboratory with zinc (1% ZnO) and alkali (1% KOH) additions to the concentrate. Reducibility, crushing strength and swelling tests were carried out and the results compared with test data from pellets prepared without additions. The results indicated normal behaviour for those pellets containing zinc, whereas those containing alkali swelled catastrophically under the same reducing conditions.

Jan 1, 1977

By D. Kunstelj, M. Stubicar, A. Tonejc, A. Bonefacic

A. Bonefafcic, D. Kunsfeli, M. Stubicar, and A. Tonejc The present communication is concerned with the variation of the texture in aluminum wires with die angle and temperature, at constant speed of extrusion. Experiments were carried out concurrently on refined samples, with a stated purity of 99.997 pct pure A1 and commercial samples of 99.5 pct Al. Ingots of refined aluminum samples were machined to 30-mm-diam by 150-mm-long billets. These billets were transformed to 5-mm-diam wires by drawing. The final form, suitable for examination, was obtained by extrusion through conical-face dies with a 1-mm hole diam and extrusion ratio 5:l in diam. The initial form of the commercial aluminum samples was drawn wire 5 mm in diam. These samples showed a poorly defined texture with (111) as a major and (001) as a minor component. A similar defined texture appeared in the refined aluminum samples after drawing to 5 mm diam. Conical-face dies with different angles (defined by the axis and the generating line of the cone) were used in our experiments. The values of the angles were 27, 35, 45, 57, 63, and 90 deg. The extrusion container was fitted with a heating element and controller permitting temperatures up to 600°C to be maintained within i5"C. Extrusion was performed at 250°, 300°, 350°, 400°, and 500°C at constant speed (approximately 1 mm per sec) and constant die reduction. The extrusion product was a wire 1 mm in diam and approximately 20 cm long. In order to remove the surface layer with the "conical" texture and to reduce the absorption by the X-ray examination of the samples, the extruded wire was etched to 0.22 mm in diam. Experiments were performed in the middle sections of the 20-cm-long wires. In addition to the die of l-mm hole diam, dies with a 1.5-, 0.7-, 0.6-, 0.5-, and 0.4-mm hole diam and 63-deg die angle were constructed. In our experiments we did not find in these ranges any important difference concerning the texture of the extruded wires and we continued our work solely on the 1.0-mm die. The diffracted X-rays (Cu K radiation) were recorded photographically. Diffracted intensities were measured on the (111) reflection with a microphotometer. The relative amounts of texture components were determined from the areas under the diffracted maxima. We found the texture of extruded aluminum wires to be strongly influenced not only by the temperature of extrusion and the purity of the sample but also by the form of the die. It is generally admitted that cold-drawn aluminum wires have mainly a (111) texture with a small amount of (001) component, Table I of Ref. 1. In our experiments with wires extruded in conditions represented by Fig. 1, in some cases a single (001) texture was obtained. If these wires were drawn repeatedly at room temperature, X-ray measurements revealed a duplex (001)-(111) fiber texture. Further drawings increased the (111) and decreased the (001) texture component. In Fig. 1 the percentage of material oriented with (001) parallel to the extrusion direction is represented as a function of the temperature and the die angle (a), for commercial and refined aluminum samples, respectively. From these diagrams we may draw the following conclusions. The slope of the die (a) influenced more strongly the texture at the lower rather than the higher temperatures. Again, a stronger influence was found in the case of the commercial in comparison with refined aluminum samples. In the case of the commercial aluminum samples the amount of material with (001) texture increases with increasing wire temperature in an approximately linear manner. This effect is less pronounced in the pure aluminum samples, with the exception of the die with a = 45 deg. In this case the (001) texture decreases with increasing temperature, as shown in Fig. 1. Component (001) is more pronounced in higher-purity aluminum samples. Our experiments led to the conclusion that both (001) and (111) components are essentially stable in extruded aluminum wires. As we obtained a single (001) texture starting with a sample of drawn wire in which the (001) component was very weak, our experiments revealed that the (001) component is not a remnant of the initial texture; this is in disagreement with the findings of Vandermeer and McHargue.1 We gratefully acknowledge discussions with Professor M. Paic. 1 R. A. Vandermeer and C. J. McHargue: Trans. 7MS-AME, 1964, vol. 230, p. 667.

Jan 1, 1969

By George S. Rice

STUDIES of ground movement and subsidence caused by mining necessarily chiefly deal with causes and effects of making extensive excavations underground with spans beyond the strength of the un- supported or temporarily timbered roof or hanging wall. Perhaps no other phase of engineering is so de- pendent for results upon the assemblage of what may be called "experience data." That this is the case is cot surprising when one considers the number of variables involved in any at- tempted mathematical formula to determine the angle of draw or the angle of permanent slope of the rocks in any particular case. It is not like dealing with construction materials in which, through testing of. small specimens, in conjunction with the tests of large built- up specimens, relative stresses and strains may be deter- mined and formulas closely approximated for still larger constructions.

Jan 1, 1931

By R. S. Dean

REQUIREMENTS for war materials have led to large scale experimentation upon metallurgical innovations. It is of interest to inquire what this may contribute of permanent value to our existing technology, as innovations adopted during war are apt to be discarded promptly at its end. This is because utilization of substandard ores usually requires a new technology for ore treatment, and a new use-pattern for employment of the products. Thus two very different problems are involved: first, devising a process; then, adopting its products by industry, with readjustments of the use-pattern if necessary. A new process may be as good or better than an old one, but the readjustments required for use of its products may prevent its general adoption if this implies scrapping existing plants and investing much additional capital. Metallurgical innovations are of three kinds: I. The use of substandard material in processes already established; 2. The grading-up of substandard material to render it more suitable for established processes; 3. The adjustment of technology and use-pattern to the raw materials that we have.

Jan 1, 1945